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Retention forestry is a harvesting system that intentionally retains important forest structures at harvest time. We examined the effect of dispersed retention on the productivity and cost of harvesting operations in a large-scale field experiment in conifer plantations in Hokkaido, Japan. For dispersed retention, we retained broad-leaved trees in three levels (10, 50, or 100 trees/ha). We used daily operator reports and investigated time consumption (h/m3) of felling and pre-hauling operations and the total cost to roadside. Compared with clearcutting, mean felling time was 7% and 17% longer, and mean pre-hauling time was 20% and 19% longer in 50 and 100 retained trees/ha, respectively. The other operations were not affected by tree retention because they were conducted at pre-existed strip roads or landings where no trees were retained. Increased time consumption caused an increased cost of felling and pre-hauling. Compared with clearcutting, the combined cost of felling and pre-hauling was 14% and 18% higher in 50 and 100 retained trees/ha, respectively. However, the total cost to roadside increased only by 3% compared with clearcutting because these two operations in total occupied 19% of the overall cost, and the cost of the other operations was not affected by tree retention. This suggests that the impact of tree retention on the total cost was small and that the harvesting system used in the present study can reduce cost increment due to tree retention unless trees are not retained on strip roads.

The aim of this study was to determine whether exercises using a balance exercise assist robot (BEAR) improved balance function in older patients with a hip fracture whose ability to perform activities of daily living (ADL) had almost plateaued. Participants were 27 older patients (3 men, 24 women; mean age 81.0 ± 6.3 years) with a hip fracture whose ability to perform ADL had almost plateaued and who were about to be discharged. All participants performed exercises using the BEAR for 20 min a day, 6 days a week, for 2 weeks before leaving the hospital. We assessed the following at pre- and post-exercise: the Timed Up and Go test (TUG), the Berg Balance Scale (BBS), the functional reach test (FRT), the standing test for imbalance and disequilibrium, functional independence measure scores (total and walking ability), preferred gait speed, and muscle strength of the lower extremities. Significant differences were observed between pre- and post-exercise for all measures, including TUG (pre: 21.9 ± 17.7 s, post: 17.4 ± 13.6 s, P

[Purpose] Various types of Gait Exercise Assist Robot (GEAR) have been developed recently, some of which have enabled early improvement in patients with stroke. However, none has yet resulted in independent walking in these patients. Hence, we conducted an exploratory study of the effect of GEAR on achieving independent walking in stroke patients. [Participants and Methods] The participants were 16 patients with severe stroke. We evaluated patients' ability to walk independently after GEAR training. The outcome measure was Stroke Impairment Assessment Set (SIAS) motor score (Hip Flexion, Knee Extension, Foot Pat, Abdominal and Verticality). Differences in five SIAS motor scores were compared between the independent and non-independent walking groups. [Results] There was statistically significant difference between the groups in terms of Verticality among the 5 SIAS items used in the present research . Verticality of SIAS score of 1 was the cut-off value for distinguishing walking independence. [Conclusion] Verticality of SIAS may be a marker of potential walking independence that can be used in rehabilitation plans using walking-assist robots in patients with stroke.

We have observed that the self-support exercises triggered electromyographic activities on the dormant muscles of the post-stroke patients. Self-support exercise here implies that the patients move their paretic arms with the supports of their non-paretic arms. The similarity of the muscle activities between the paretic and the non-paretic arms show that the motor paralysis is improved during the self-support exercises. We have showed through the clinical tests that biofeedback rehabilitation using this self-support exercises can improve the recovery speed from the motion paralysis. In this paper, we report that EMG frequency and heart rate variability during self-support exercises became smaller than those during bimanual exercises, suggesting that parasympathetic nerve system in the self-support exercise became more active than in bimanual exercise. Instead the causality between the motor paralysis improvement and the changes of the autonomous nerve states is unclear, these results is the evidence that the neural pathways that was used before stroke are used in the self-support exercise though abnormal pathways are used in the bimanual exercises.

An ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus, is the vector of Japanese oak wilt, one of the most serious forest diseases in Japan. P. quercivorus is widely distributed in the main islands of Honshu, K...

Background Post-polio syndrome-induced muscle weakness may develop in limbs that have had normal muscle strength and have been considered unaffected by polio. Objective To investigate the utility of electromyography (EMG) for predicting future muscle weakness in clinically unaffected limb muscles of polio survivors. Design Retrospective study. Setting Academic polio clinic. Participants Polio survivors (N = 77) who underwent EMG between April 2008 and March 2010 and were followed for at least 2 years. Materials and methods Chart reviews were conducted to extract baseline EMG and manual muscle strength test (MMT) results to investigate the relationship between baseline EMG abnormalities and change in muscle strength over 2 years for various upper and lower limb muscles that control movement in the limb joints. Main outcome measurements Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of EMG findings for prediction of subsequent muscle weakness. Results EMG data were available for 44 deltoid, 59 biceps brachii, 60 triceps brachii, 59 vastus lateralis, 59 tibialis anterior, and 55 gastrocnemius (medial head) muscles. The percentage of muscles with an initial MMT of grade 5 that developed weakness over 2 years of follow-up was approximately 15% for most muscle types. Sensitivity of EMG to predict subsequent weakness was higher in the lower limbs (0.67-1.00). Specificity was higher in the biceps brachii (0.83). PPV was higher in the biceps brachii (0.50). NPV was higher in the lower limbs (0.89-1.00) but lower in the deltoid (0.75). Conclusion EMG abnormalities were detected in some clinically normal muscles of polio survivors. EMG abnormalities predicted muscle weakness 2 years later, although the strength of this relationship varied depending on the muscle.

Unilateral arm paralysis is a common symptom of stroke. In stroke patients, we observed that self-guided biomechanical support by the nonparetic arm unexpectedly triggered electromyographic activity with normal muscle synergies in the paretic arm. The muscle activities on the paretic arm became similar to the muscle activities on the nonparetic arm with self-supported exercises that were quantified by the similarity index (SI). Electromyogram (EMG) signals and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) of the patients (n=54) showed that self-supported exercise can have an immediate effect of improving the muscle activities by 40-80% according to SI quantification, and the muscle activities became much more similar to the muscle activities of the age-matched healthy subjects. Using this self-supported exercise, we investigated whether the recruitment of a patient's contralesional nervous system could reactivate their ipsilesional neural circuits and stimulate functional recovery. We proposed biofeedback training with self-supported exercise where the muscle activities were visualized to encourage the appropriate neural pathways for activating the muscles of the paretic arm. We developed the biofeedback system and tested the recovery speed with the patients (n=27) for 2 months. The clinical tests showed that self-support-based biofeedback training improved SI approximately by 40%, Stroke Impairment Assessment Set (SIAS) by 35%, and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) by 20%.

Background Muscle synergies are now widely discussed as a method for evaluating the existence of redundant neural networks that can be activated to enhance stroke rehabilitation. However, this approach was initially conceived to study muscle coordination during learned motions in healthy individuals. After brain damage, there are several neural adaptations that contribute to the recovery of motor strength, with muscle coordination being one of them. In this study, a model is proposed that assesses motion based on surface electromyography (sEMG) according to two main factors closely related to the neural adaptations underlying motor recovery: (1) the correct coordination of the muscles involved in a particular motion and (2) the ability to tune the effective strength of each muscle through muscle fiber contractions. These two factors are hypothesized to be affected differently by brain damage. Therefore, their independent evaluation will play an important role in understanding the origin of stroke-related motor impairments. Results The model proposed was validated by analyzing sEMG data from 18 stroke patients with different paralysis levels and 30 healthy subjects. While the factors necessary to describe motion were stable across heathy subjects, there was an increasing disassociation for stroke patients with severe motor impairment. Conclusions The clear dissociation between the coordination of muscles and the tuning of their strength demonstrates the importance of evaluating these factors in order to choose appropriate rehabilitation therapies. The model described in this research provides an efficient approach to promptly evaluate these factors through the use of two intuitive indexes.

Because it is extremely time-consuming and costly to evaluate species richness of highly diverse taxa such as insects, cost-effective sampling strategies to estimate species richness are needed, especially when long-term monitoring is conducted. We found a sampling method that reduced the number of traps per site when estimating species richness of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in six forest sites in Sorachi, Hokkaido, northern Japan. We set 40 pitfall traps per site and collected ground beetles for 1-week periods in June, July, and August 2013. We evaluated the performance of three non-parametric species richness estimators [Jackknife2, Chao1, and the abundance-based coverage estimator (ACE)] to estimate species richness. Rarefaction curves showed that ACE was the only valid estimator to estimate species richness for all sites. Using ACE, we can reduce the number of traps to 30 or 20 from 40 traps per site if we allow a bias of 5 or 10%, respectively. This study suggests that non-parametric species richness estimators are useful in estimating species richness of ground beetles with reduced sample size.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical usefulness of the Cube Copying Test (CCT) for quantitative assessment of visuo-spatial function in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Methods: The CCT, Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices (RCPM), and other neuropsychological tests were administered to 152 AD outpatients. For the quantitative assessment of CCT, we scored the points of connection (POC) and the number of plane-drawing errors (PDE) and categorized the pattern classification (PAC). We also measured Functional Assessment Staging (FAST) to assess the severity of AD. The relationships among CCT, RCPM, and FAST were then analyzed. Results: The mean POC and PDE scores were 2.7 and 3.6, respectively, and the median PAC score was 6.0. PDE and PAC showed a linear relationship, but POC and PDE, and POC and PAC did not. Each component of CCT showed a significant correlation with RCPM scores. PDE and PAC had closer correlations with RCPM scores than POC did. The PDE and PAC results were significantly different among most of the FAST stages. Conclusions: Quantitative assessment using CCT may be effective for the quick determination of the visuo-spatial function in AD patients.

For patients with dementia and their family, artificial intelligence (AI) has been utilized to support diagnosis and evaluation. In addition, communication robots equipped with AI offer a way to maintain the cognitive functions of patients with dementia. Moreover, AI is currently used for fall prevention and to define the needs of patients and their family and to convey them to develop new devices. The expectation for AI is to make the quality of life for patients and their family's better than ever.

Retention forestry is thought to contribute to the balance between biological conservation and timber production. However, its efficacy has mainly been investigated in natural or naturally regenerated forests, and there have been few studies in plantations and Asia. Conifer plantations are quite common in boreal and temperate regions, and native broadleaved trees in conifer plantations are a key structure for maintaining biodiversity in the plantations. We focused on two retention methods in conifer plantations in northern Japan: dispersed broadleaved retention and aggregated conifer retention. We examined the effects of dispersed broadleaved and aggregated conifer retention on forest ground beetles at both the species and community levels and compared the efficacies of these two retention methods under different retention levels. Our results demonstrated that the abundance of forest species in harvested areas increased with the level of dispersed retained trees. We also found that the abundance of forest species decreased in clear-cut areas of aggregated retention sites, whereas the abundance of most species did not decrease within aggregated retention patches of conifer trees and was similar to that in unharvested plantations. It was inferred from the comparison of efficacy between dispersed broadleaved and aggregated conifer retention that the efficacies of the two retention methods were comparable but that at high retention levels, the efficacy of dispersed broadleaved retention could be higher than that of aggregated retention with respect to the species richness of forest species. Our findings demonstrated that retention forestry mitigated the harvest impacts on forest ground beetles in Asian conifer plantations.

Aim To examine the efficacy of postural strategy training using a balance exercise assist robot (BEAR) as compared with conventional balance training for frail older adults. Methods The present study was designed as a cross-over trial without a washout term. A total of 27 community-dwelling frail or prefrail elderly residents (7 men, 20 women; age range 65–85 years) were selected from a volunteer sample. Two exercises were prepared for interventions: robotic exercise moving the center of gravity by the balance exercise assist robot system; and conventional balance training combining muscle-strengthening exercise, postural strategy training and applied motion exercise. Each exercise was carried out twice a week for 6 weeks. Participants were allocated randomly to either the robotic exercise first group or the conventional balance exercise first group. Main outcome measures: preferred and maximal gait speeds, tandem gait speeds, timed up-and-go test, functional reach test, functional base of support, center of pressure, and muscle strength of the lower extremities were assessed before and after completion of each exercise program. Results Robotic exercise achieved significant improvements for tandem gait speed (P = 0.012), functional reach test (P = 0.002), timed up-and-go test (P = 0.023) and muscle strength of the lower extremities (P = 0.001–0.030) compared with conventional exercise. Conclusions In frail or prefrail older adults, robotic exercise was more effective for improving dynamic balance and lower extremity muscle strength than conventional exercise. These findings suggest that postural strategy training with the balance exercise assist robot is effective to improve the gait instability and muscle weakness often seen in frail older adults. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2017; 17: 1982–1990.

Small-scale soil scarification under canopies has been proposed to remove regeneration inhibitor plants that often dominate the understory in natural forests after selection logging. We studied the impacts of the small-scale soil scarification on carabid beetle assemblages in conifer hardwood mixed forests in northern Japan. We sampled carabid beetles using pitfall traps in scarified sites and adjacent unscarified sites two and four years after scarification. Forest species made up 98% of the total catch with only a few individuals of non-forest species occurring in scarified sites. Species richness of forest species did not differ significantly between scarified and unscarified sites, whereas species richness of non-forest species was higher in scarified sites than in unscarified sites. Carabid species composition differed between scarified and unscarified sites in each of the two study years. Dissimilarity measures between scarified and adjacent unscarified sites were smaller after four years than after two years, indicating that differences in species composition associated with scarification declined during the study period. Some forest species were more abundant in scarified sites, whereas other forest species were more abundant in unscarified sites. Our results suggest that small-scale scarification may have a limited impact on carabid beetle diversity.

Understanding the complex neuromuscular strategies underlying behavioral adaptation in healthy individuals and motor recovery after brain damage is essential for gaining fundamental knowledge on the motor control system. Relying on the concept of muscle synergy, which indicates the number of coordinated muscles needed to accomplish specific movements, we investigated behavioral adaptation in nine healthy participants who were introduced to a familiar environment and unfamiliar environment. We then compared the resulting computed muscle synergies with those observed in 10 moderate-stroke survivors throughout an 11-week motor recovery period. Our results revealed that computed muscle synergy characteristics changed after healthy participants were introduced to the unfamiliar environment, compared with those initially observed in the familiar environment, and exhibited an increased neural response to unpredictable inputs. The altered neural activities dramatically adjusted through behavior training to suit the unfamiliar environment requirements. Interestingly, we observed similar neuromuscular behaviors in patients with moderate stroke during the follow-up period of their motor recovery. This similarity suggests that the underlying neuromuscular strategies for adapting to an unfamiliar environment are comparable to those used for the recovery of motor function after stroke. Both mechanisms can be considered as a recall of neural pathways derived from preexisting muscle synergies, already encoded by the brain's internal model. Our results provide further insight on the fundamental principles of motor control and thus can guide the future development of poststroke therapies., We are very grateful for the technical and financial assistance of Toyota Motor Co.

Speed control is a crucial factor of motor skill. Although rehabilitation for damaged central mechanisms underpinning the appropriate temporal tuning during bimanual coordination is an important target, the detailed knowledge about the methodology of the therapy is quite limited. This study aimed to clarify the effect of slowing the pace of bimanual rhythmic steering task using a new steering device on the homologous muscle coupling exemplified by the EMG-EMG coherence. At the slow pace, homologous coherence in control subjects at a frequency band of 65–115 Hz in forearm flexors increased relative to the natural speed, whereas small increment in subjects after stroke, suggesting activated central coupling mechanisms dominate the distal muscles for speed adaptation. Relationship between the capability of this mechanism and recovery after stroke is of interesting topic in future studies and will be beneficial for physical rehabilitation.

Few herbivores are well adapted to feeding on all foliage age classes available and most have evolved traits that are attuned to the characteristics of either developing or mature foliage; however, recent evidence has shown a number of insect herbivores that may mix different-aged foliage as a means of enhancing fitness. We carried out a series of laboratory and field experiments to investigate whether larvae of Asian gypsy moth [L. umbrosa (Butler) = L. dispar hokkaidoensis Goldschmidt] (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) engage in and benefit from foliage-age dietary mixing in common conifer species that naturally occur in its native range of Hokkaido, Japan. In a laboratory experiment, early instar larvae were observed on both developing and mature foliage when both age classes were available; however, larval survival and weight were highest on hosts with developing foliage available (larch, fir, and pine), whereas all larvae died on spruce where only mature foliage was available. In contrast, laboratory and field experiments indicated that late-instar larvae often consumed both developing and mature foliage on all conifer species studied, although there was general preference bias towards mature foliage. Field bioassays indicated that late-instar larvae provided both foliage age classes (a ‘mixed’ diet) had similar performance to those provided only developing or mature foliage. Results of this study indicate that larvae obtain limited performance benefits from mixing different foliage age-classes into their diet, other than perhaps the benefits accrued from having a broader resource pool available on a single host tree.

Mori S, Osawa A, Maeshima S, Ozaki K, Sakurai T, Kondo I, Saito E. Clinical examination of reliability/ validity of scoring methods for Cube-Copying Test (CCT). Jpn J Compr Rehabil Sci 2014; 5: 102-108. Objective: Various scoring methods for the CubeCopying Test (CCT) have been assessed for their validity, but few have been examined for reliability. Additionally, a comparison of multiple scoring methods applied to an identical group of patients has not been reported to date. The present study examined both the reliability and validity of multiple scoring methods and their role in the evaluation of spatial cognitive function. Method: Thirty-three patients who visited the Medical Center for Dementia at our hospital were included in the study. The Cube-Copying Test was independently scored by two raters using two different scoring methods. Results: Both scoring methods showed significant inter- and intra-rater reliability. The assessment of criterion-related validity showed a significant correlation with Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices and Frontal Assessment Battery, demonstrating that the CCT reflects visual cognitive functioning and executive functioning. The CCT also showed a significant correlation with education years, suggesting that the CCT scores are more affected by years of education than by age or duration of illness.

Ozaki K, Kagaya H, Kondo I, Saitoh E, Imai S, Sonoda S, Itoh N. Reliability and minimal detectable change of Quantified Paralysis Performance Assessment (QPPA) using a three-dimensional motion analysis device. Jpn J Compr Rehabil Sci 2014; 5: 109-116. Purpose: We developed a quantitative evaluation method for motor impairment in hemiplegia using a three-dimensional motion analysis device, the Quantified Paralysis Performance Assessment (QPPA). As a pre-clinical study, we verified the reproducibility and minimal detectable change of the method. Methods: Sixty-six patients who had the first stroke [39 males, 27 females; aged 60 ± 12 years (mean ± standard deviation)] were studied. QPPA measurement was conducted two times to obtain one set of data. The following measurements were performed; upper limb function (arm; QPPA-UE) and lower limb functions (hip joint; QPPA-Hip, knee joint; QPPA-Knee, and ankle joint; QPPA-Ankle). The lifted distance and maximum velocity for each marker were used as the typical values. From the typical values obtained from one set, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and 95% confidence intervals of minimal detectable change (MDC 95 ) were calculated. Results: In the case that two sets of data were obtained from the same acute stage patient at an interval of over two weeks, the two sets were analyzed individually. With a total of 91 sets of measurements, the ICCs of the QPPA indices ranged from 0.956-0.989, and MDC 95 ranged from 4.56-6.79%. Conclusion: The typical values of QPPA showed high reproducibility. In addition, the minimal detectable change was small, suggesting that this method captures clinical changes with higher sensitivity than evaluation methods using ordinal scales.

Yamada K, Kondo I, Ozaki K, Sumi Y, Tanaka Y. Evaluation of food texture by a questionnaire utilizing oropharyngeal sensation. Jpn J Compr Rehabil Sci 2013; 4: 1－6. Purpose: With the objective to develop a standardized sensory test for food texture, which allows simple diet evaluation using oropharyngeal sensation in clinical and domiciliary settings, we added items to an existing questionnaire and evaluated the reliability and criterion-related validity of the new instrument. Methods: Twenty healthy adult volunteers were instructed to chew and swallow test foods adjusted to three grades of food property using the enzyme homogeneous permeation or freeze-dry method, and then respond to a questionnaire containing nine items. Results: The highest κ, which is the statistic value for reliability, was 0.523 for question 1 and the lowest κ was 0.281 for question 2. For criterion-related validity, a significant relationship was observed between multiple questionnaire items and “hardness stress” (p < 0.05), whereas almost no significant correlation was observed between the questionnaire items and “adhesiveness” or “cohesiveness” (p ≥ 0.05). Conclusion: Criterion-related validity was confirmed for several questionnaire items in relation to “hardness stress”. Future studies are required to explore questionnaire items related to “adhesiveness” and “cohesiveness” and to improve the reliability of the

To examine the efficacy of postural strategy training using a balance exercise assist robot (BEAR) as compared with conventional balance training for frail older adults.The present study was designed as a cross-over trial without a washout term. A total of 27 community-dwelling frail or prefrail elderly residents (7 men, 20 women; age range 65-85 years) were selected from a volunteer sample. Two exercises were prepared for interventions: robotic exercise moving the center of gravity by the balance exercise assist robot system; and conventional balance training combining muscle-strengthening exercise, postural strategy training and applied motion exercise. Each exercise was carried out twice a week for 6 weeks. Participants were allocated randomly to either the robotic exercise first group or the conventional balance exercise first group.preferred and maximal gait speeds, tandem gait speeds, timed up-and-go test, functional reach test, functional base of support, center of pressure, and muscle strength of the lower extremities were assessed before and after completion of each exercise program.Robotic exercise achieved significant improvements for tandem gait speed (P = 0.012), functional reach test (P = 0.002), timed up-and-go test (P = 0.023) and muscle strength of the lower extremities (P = 0.001-0.030) compared with conventional exercise.In frail or prefrail older adults, robotic exercise was more effective for improving dynamic balance and lower extremity muscle strength than conventional exercise. These findings suggest that postural strategy training with the balance exercise assist robot is effective to improve the gait instability and muscle weakness often seen in frail older adults. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2017; 17: 1982-1990.

Dietary mixing is an important adaptation used by many animals to account for nutritional heterogeneity in their environment, but it remains largely unstudied for specialist insects within crowns of deciduous hosts. We carried out field and laboratory studies to explain dietary mixing by larvae of the larch sawfly, Pristiphora erichsonii (Hartig) (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) of dimorphic foliage types (i.e. long shoots versus fascicles) within a deciduous conifer, Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carr. First-instar larvae fed mainly on long shoots, and late instars fed mainly on fascicles; however, during all instars, some individuals could be observed feeding on long shoots or fascicles. A mixed diet yielded higher overall survival due to benefits accrued during both early and late instars. Late instars had similar prepupal mass and developmental rate when provided a mixed or fascicle-only diet, but they suffered significant reductions in both performance parameters when forced to feed exclusively on long shoots. Overall fitness of females was 15–22% higher for larvae provided a mixed diet than for larvae provided one foliage type. Our results support the ‘ontogeny’ hypothesis, which attributes dietary mixing to changes in nutritional needs of larvae over the course of development, as well as the ‘complementary diet’ hypothesis, which contends that mixing of different foliage types is associated with nutrient balancing or toxin dilution. Our results suggest that architectural patterns of growth and nutritional quality within crowns of deciduous conifers exert selective pressure similar to that of evergreens on insect herbivores to diet-mix during juvenile development.

In Japan, 42 % of forests are planted forests, and most of them were established after World War II (1950–1980) to meet increased wood demands. Although Japanese planted forests are now reaching their planned harvest age, they have not been managed, and their restoration is now being discussed. Japanese foresters have not cut their own forests, and the country’s high wood demands have been met by imports during recent decades. The decline of young forests due to the stagnation of forestry activity is suggested to be partly responsible for the nation-wide decline in early-successional species, which is referred to as the “second crisis of biodiversity.” As a timber-importing nation, it is suggested that Japan has underused the nation’s own forests and has overused forests elsewhere. A revival of Japanese plantation forestry may contribute to the restoration of early-successional species because young planted forests are likely to provide suitable habitats. Furthermore, only 30 % of the current planted forests in Japan will be needed to meet the expected future domestic demand for lumber and plywood without imports. The remaining 70 % of the current planted forests may be restored to natural forests with or without harvesting. The history of Japanese planted forests suggests that some natural trees/forests should be retained, even in the landscapes that specialize in wood production, because part of the planted forests may be economically marginalized in the future, and their restoration to natural forests would then be needed.

Seasonal trends of adult moth assemblages were investigated using portable light traps in a cool-temperate region in central Hokkaido, northern Japan. Light traps were set at monthly intervals from April to December 2005 in five stands. Seasonal changes in the numbers of species and individuals in each stand were unimodal with a peak in summer (July or August). The value of a similarity index between samples from successive months in each stand was always low, indicating that species composition changed greatly between successive months. Based on the seasonal occurrence of 248 species, the mean occurrence period in each species was only 1.8 months. Among these species, 91.5% were estimated to be univoltine and only 8.5% were estimated to be multivoltine. Most species occurred in the summer (July and/or August), although some occurred only in the spring or autumn. Thus, in the present study the high species turnover of adult moths during the active season was due to the short occurrence period of...

The family Adelgidae is a small group of insects within Aphidoidea (Hemiptera). Adelgids are typically holocyclic with host-alternation between the primary and secondary hosts, but some anholocyclic species persist either on the primary or secondary host. Like Aphididae, complexities and variation of adelgid life cycles are good models for understanding the evolution of complex life cycles. In this review, we outline the complex life cycles of adelgids, and current status and recent advances in adelgid life cycle studies. We also discuss the evolution of adelgid life cycles by comparing them to closely related aphid life cycles. A switch from holocycly to anholocycly on the primary host needs evolutionary innovations in gallicola behavior and reproduction. This radical evolution can be explained by mutations in a regulatory system that controls the sequence of gene sets producing phenotypes of one morph. In contrast, anholocycly on the secondary host consists of a series of exulis generations already existing in the holocycle. Thus, it may evolve by loss of primary-host generations through extinction of the primary host, expansion beyond the geographical range of the primary host, or loss of male-producing sexuparae that return to the primary host. Although the holocycle and its anholocyclic derivatives have been regarded as different species, morphological, ecological and genetic differences are too subtle to separate them into different species. The holocycle and its anholocyclic derivatives should not be split into different species without clearly identifiable morphological differences.

To elucidate the impact of browsing by moose on the indigenous insect community, we investigated the abundance of a specialist insect herbivore (galler; Paradiplosis tumifex ) and its natural enemy (inquiline; Dasineura balsamicola ) on balsam fir saplings in the field using exclosures in Newfoundland, Canada. The number of current-year shoots on each sapling, but not the density of balsam fir saplings, was significantly higher inside exclosures, where moose had been excluded for 9–12 years, than outside exclosures. Current-year shoots were longer and contained more, but smaller, needles inside than outside exclosures. Moose browsing had a negative impact on the abundance of both the galler and its natural enemy. Gall density was 85.6% and 60.4% lower in 2006 and 2007, respectively, outside than inside exclosures. Similarly, the attack rate of D. balsamicola was 76.5% lower outside than inside exclosures in 2007. The apparent survival rate of P. tumifex larvae was similar outside and inside exclosures due to higher rates of unexplained mortality in galls outside exclosures. Survival of P. tumifex larvae was positively related to shoot length and inversely related to gall density. Only gall density was negatively related to D. balsamicola survival. Our results demonstrate that a large mammal can cause strong bottom-up trophic cascades.

Evaluation of species diversity for highly diverse taxa is extremely time-consuming and costly; thus, there is a need to develop efficient sampling strategies. We established a short-term, efficient sampling scheme to produce samples that represent a full-season sampling of moth assemblages with a high degree of seasonality. We sampled adult moths monthly for the duration of the moth flying season by using light traps in five forest stands in a cool-temperate region in central Hokkaido, northern Japan. From this sample, we generated various subsamples that reduced the sampling period and the number of traps per stand, and tested whether these subsamples provide estimates of species richness, abundance, and species turnover representative of those revealed by the whole season sample. Comparisons between the whole season sample and each subsample indicated that setting one light trap on a night in July and August, which shortened the sampling period to 25% and reduced sample size to 38%, was the most efficient sampling scheme to estimate abundance, species richness, and similarity in the whole season sample. The comparisons also suggest that it is efficient to use rarified species richness as a species richness estimator, and the Bray—Curtis index or Morisita's Cλ for estimating species turnover between sites in moth assemblages.

Gall-forming insects are commonly highly host-specific, and galling species once thought to be oligo- or polyphagous are often found to represent a complex of host-specific races or cryptic species. A recent DNA barcoding study documented that an unidentified species of the genus Adelges is a gall-former associated with four spruce species (Picea bicolor, P. koyamai, P. maximowiczii, P. polita) as the primary hosts, with little genetic differentiation among insects on different host species. In this study, we investigated the morphology of this galling adelgid to determine its taxonomic identity. Morphological inspection of insects collected from three of the spruce species confirmed that this adelgid is a single galling species, and is identified as Adelges (Sacchiphantes) kitamiensis, which was previously known only from the secondary host. We described the gallicola adults of this species, as well as the first-instar exules which are the offspring of gallicolae. Finally, we verified the taxonomic identity of this species and discuss its life cycle and host distribution.

To investigate the indirect effects of browsing by sika deer on a gall midge (Procystiphora uedai) on dwarf bamboo, we tested the hypothesis that by changing the quality of plant modules, deer browsing indirectly affects multiple life history traits of P. uedai both before and after colonization. A previous study in the same system reported that following gall induction, larval survival was lower in galls on previously browsed shoots, due to higher levels of parasitism. We elucidated the indirect effects of deer browsing by examining the oviposition preference, neonate survival, and potential fecundity (i.e., weight of survivors) of P. uedai on browsed versus non-browsed dwarf bamboos using exclosures. Browsing caused opposite indirect effects on different parameters. Ovipositing females preferred large, non-browsed more than small, browsed dwarf bamboo shoots. Browsing increased neonate survival, presumably by producing relatively soft, small dwarf bamboo shoots. However, deer browsing decreased the weight of survivors, due presumably to the relatively smaller galls that produced smaller shoots. Thus, the present study suggests that deer browsing has lower impact on the total survival rate of larvae than the previous study as a result of increased neonate survival, which will offset the lower survival rate of successfully colonized larvae on browsed dwarf bamboo. Therefore, our study illustrates that the indirect effects of mammal browsing on insect herbivores are not as simple as previously reported. Our study emphasizes the need for evaluating both the colonization process and post-gall-induction survival and fecundity if we are to fully understand the indirect effects of mammal browsing on insect herbivores.

Although plantation forests have widely replaced native forests worldwide, few studies have examined the effects of plantation forestry on organisms at the landscape level. In this study, we examined the effects of broad-leaved forest patch area (1.4–312 ha) on bird assemblages in a conifer plantation-dominated landscape during wintering and breeding seasons. We also surveyed birds in the plantation matrix and treated the patch area of the matrix as 0. We examined whether the detection rates of species changed suddenly across patch area (threshold) using segmented regression. We found that species richness increased with patch area in both seasons. Responses of detection rates to patch area varied and were categorized as follows: insensitive, linear increase and decrease, quadratic increase and decrease, concave and convex. Thresholds indicating that the detection rate suddenly increased above a certain patch area were found for two species only in the winter. Species responses varied more in the winter than in the breeding season. Certain ecological traits of species were consistently associated with the responses to patch area across seasons (migratory strategy, nesting substrate and foraging trait), while body weight was only associated in the winter. Because species richness and detection rates of many species were high in large patches, large broad-leaved forests (especially >40 ha) should be retained and restored with high priority. Additionally, bird responses to patch area in the winter should not be ignored because many species required large patches during the winter season.

Although enhancing reserve shape has been suggested as an alternative to enlarging nature reserves, the importance of reserve shape relative to reserve area remains unclear. Here we examined the relative importance of area and shape of forest patches to species richness, species composition, and species abundance (abundance of each species) for 3 taxa (33 birds, 41 butterflies, and 91 forest-floor plants) in a fragmented landscape in central Hokkaido, northern Japan. We grouped the species according to their potential edge responses (interior-, neutral-, and edge-species groups for birds and forest-floor plants, woodland- and open-land-species groups for butterflies) and analyzed them separately. We used a shape index that was independent of area as an index of shape circularization. Hierarchical partitioning and variation partitioning revealed that patch area was generally more important than patch shape for species richness and species composition of birds and butterflies. For forest-floor plants, effects of patch area and shape were small, whereas effects of local forest structure were large. Patch area and circularization generally increased abundances of interior species of birds and forest-floor plants and woodland species of butterflies. Nevertheless, only patch circularization increased abundances of 1 woodland species of butterfly and 2 and 6 interior species of birds and forest-floor plants, respectively. We did not find any significant interaction effects between patch area and shape. Our results suggest that although reserves generally should be large and circular, there is a trade-off between patch area and shape, which should be taken into consideration when managing reserves.

栃木県において，ラジオテレメトリー法を用いてオオタカAccipiter gentilisの雄成鳥の繁殖期（6月，8月）と非繁殖期（10月，12月）における行動圏内の環境選択を調べた．各個体の95%固定カーネル法による行動圏内からランダムに選んだ1,000地点をランダム点とし，ランダム点と観察点を応答変数とするロジスティック回帰分析により環境選択を解析した．ロジスティック回帰分析の説明変数に，ランダム点と観察点から巣までの距離を含めた結果，雄成鳥は，非繁殖期には巣の近くをよく利用する傾向があったが，繁殖期にはこの傾向はなかった．繁殖期，非繁殖期ともに雄成鳥は森林を強く選択する一方，市街地を強く忌避していた．しかし，市街地の近くを忌避する傾向はなかった．繁殖期には水田よりも畑地・草地を選択していたが，非繁殖期には逆に水田を選択する個体が多かった．森林を利用する場合には，繁殖期には林縁部（林縁から50 m以内）を選択したが，非繁殖期には林縁選択性が低下し，森林内部をより多く利用した．以上の結果より，森林と農耕地が混在する地域でオオタカの採食環境を保全する場合には，行動圏内の森林と隣接する畑地・草地等の開放地を維持・管理し，それらの地域内に市街地が大幅に増えないようにすることが重要だと考えられる．また，繁殖期には巣の近くを選択的に利用する傾向はなかったが，営巣域周辺は一定の範囲を保全すべきであろう．

It is important to conserve forest-dependent organisms not only in broadleaved forests but also in plantation forests. We examined how surrounding forest areas affect forest bird assemblages inhabiting conifer plantations and broadleaved forests in a rural landscape in central Japan. Surrounding forest areas were measured separately as plantation area and broadleaved forest area within 200 m of each sampling site. We used hierarchical partitioning to analyze the effects of surrounding forest areas and stand structures (stand height and understory coverage) on the occurrence of four species groups. We especially focused on mature forest users that are most sensitive to loss of broadleaved forests. Occurrence of mature forest users inhabiting plantation sites was positively affected both by plantation area and broadleaved forest area whereas the occurrence of mature forest users inhabiting broadleaved forests was affected by stand height only. These results suggest that surrounding forest areas were more important to mature forest users in plantations than in broadleaved forests. To conserve mature forest users, increasing surrounding forest areas are important in plantations whereas increasing stand heights would be effective in broadleaved forests.

In the course of our studies on antidiabetogenic compounds from natural medicines and medicinal foodstuffs, a methanolic extract of the fruits of Solanum lycocarpum showed an inhibitory effect on the increase of serum glucose levels in oral sucrose-loaded rats. Through bioassay-guided separation, three known steroidal alkaloid oligoglycosides, solamargine (1), solasonine (3), and 12-hydroxysolasonine (5), were isolated from the active fraction together with two new steroidal alkaloid oligoglycosides, robeneosides A (2) and B (4). The major constituents, solamargine (1) and solasonine (3), exhibited an inhibitory effect on the increase of serum glucose levels in oral sucrose-loaded rats. In addition, these compounds suppressed gastric emptying in mice. However, this methanolic extract from S. lycocarpum fruits did not have any effect on intestinal alpha-glucosidase (sucrase and maltase) in vitro. It was concluded that these steroidal alkaloid oligoglycosides, 1 and 3, inhibited the increase of rat serum glucose levels by suppressing the transfer of sucrose from the stomach to the small intestine.

栃木県において，ラジオテレメトリー法を用いてオオタカAccipiter gentilisの雄成鳥の繁殖期（6～8月）と非繁殖期（10～12月）の行動圏を調べた．14個体の繁殖期の平均行動圏面積は最外郭法100%多角形による推定で1,052 ha，95%固定カーネル法で899 haであった．行動圏面積は解析期間前半に比べて後半に有意に増加した．14個体中4個体で，観察点から巣までの距離と調査日の間に有意な正の相関があった．これらの個体では，解析期間後半に幼鳥への給餌頻度が減少し，巣から離れた場所でも採餌を行うようになった結果，行動圏面積が増加したと考えられる．6個体の非繁殖期の平均行動圏面積は最外郭法100%多角形による推定で2,609 ha，95%固定カーネル法で1,678 haであった．非繁殖期にも主に繁殖期の行動圏を継続して利用したが，その一方で巣から離れた地点も利用したため，平均行動圏面積は繁殖期の1.9倍となった．本調査地の行動圏は繁殖期，非繁殖期ともにヨーロッパや北米での報告よりも小さかったが，繁殖期と比べて非繁殖期の行動圏が特に小さかった．雄成鳥は繁殖期の行動圏を通年利用するため，繁殖期の行動圏はオオタカの保全上，重要な地域と考えられる．しかし，非繁殖期の行動圏内に冬期の重要な餌動物や採餌環境が存在するなら，非繁殖期の行動圏の保全も考慮するべきであろう．

Large raptors such as northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) frequently have been the focus of conservation efforts because of their large area requirements and habitat sensitivity. We examined landscape-scale habitat selection of breeding goshawks and created a habitat model of goshawk landscape use in an area (1,600 km2) that contained forested, agricultural, and urban landscapes in northern Japan. From a systematic nest survey and extensive radio telemetry, we delineated 36 male home ranges (18 of them were approximated with similar-sized plots around nests) and 44 similar-sized unoccupied plots over the study area. The proportions of forest cover in each home range varied widely (between 2 and 88%). Despite this variation, goshawk landscape use was estimated accurately (classification accuracy = 84%) with a stepwise logistic regression model; the probability of occupancy was positively associated with the proportion of forest interior (>200 m from the forest edge) and that of open land

The structure of a herbivore community may change consistently along the genetic cline of a host plant, change at particular points along the cline, or respond independently of the cline. To reveal such relationships between a gall wasp community and genetic variation in the host plant Quercus crispula, we examined patterns in the species richness and abundance of gall wasps along a genetic cline of the host plant, using 12 half-sib families from six different regions. The genetic relationships among the half-sib families of Q. crispula were quantified on the basis of leaf morphology, which represented a morphological cline from leaves typical of Q. crispula to leaves resembling another oak species, Q. dentata. The morphological cline could be regarded as a genetic cline caused by a history of hybridization with Q. dentata. The mean numbers of gall types varied among the half-sib families, but did not show a consistent increase or decrease along the genetic cline. This pattern could be explained by the fact that responses to host plant variation differed among the gall wasp species. The half-sib families were classified into three groups based on an ordination analysis of the species composition of the gall wasp community that to some extent also reflected the genetic cline of Q. crispula. This suggests that the species composition of gall wasps changed intermittently along the genetic cline, rather than gradually and consistently along the cline.

The effects of partial debudding on photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and nitrogen contents of 1-year-old needles and newly grown needles were studied in Picea jezoensis (Sieb. et Zucc.). Seventy-five percent of the buds of P. jezoensis seedlings were removed soon after bud break. Gas exchange was measured three times for 1-year-old needles and twice for current-year needles. The photosynthetic rates of 1-year-old needles were greater in debudded seedlings than in control seedlings, and the difference increased as the growing season progressed. This greater photosynthetic rate in debudded seedlings was accompanied by greater stomatal conductance. However, neither the photosynthetic rates nor the stomatal conductance of current-year needles differed between debudded and control seedlings after the needles had fully expanded. Debudding also had no effect on mass-based nitrogen contents in either the 1-year-old or the current-year needles. Area-based nitrogen in the 1-year-old needles did not differ between debudded and control seedlings, but was greater in debudded seedlings than in control seedlings in current-year needles. These results suggest that the enhanced photosynthetic rate is more likely a result of an increased root/leaf ratio that reduces the stomatal limitation of photosynthetic rate than a result of altered sink-source relationships or increased leaf nitrogen content.

The correlation between photoluminescence (PL) and structural properties of ZnO crystals has been investigated using fine particles prepared by a precipitation method and subsequent heat treatment. The ZnO particles heat-treated at temperatures less than 600°C exhibited red emission centered at 1.9 eV for a weak light excitation similar to that observed in ZnO thin films sputter-grown under thermally non-equilibrium conditions. Heat treatment at high temperatures reduced the red PL while it enhanced the green PL around 2.45 eV. Raman scattering and X-ray diffraction measurements showed that the ZnO particles obtained at lower temperatures have a greater lattice disorder accompanied by a specific lattice expansion along the c-axis of the ZnO crystal which would introduce defect states in the band gap. In addition, electrical conductivity measurements suggested that the lattice disorder is associated with interstitial Zn. These results indicate that the lattice disorder along the c-axis of the ZnO crystal, i.e., the interstitial Zn is most likely responsible for the red PL observed for both ZnO particles and thin films. On the other hand, recombination centers such as singly charged oxygen vacancies contributing to the green emission may be too low in concentration to affect the structural quality.

Polycrystalline ZnO films both exhibiting strong ultraviolet (UV) photoluminescence (PL) and having smooth surfaces applicable to electronic devices have been obtained by rf-sputter deposition and subsequent heat treatment. The peak of UV PL was located at 3.05 eV and exhibited a linewidth as narrow as 70 meV, along with a strong intensity comparable to that observed for ZnO epitaxial film grown on sapphire under the same conditions. The UV PL intensity was found to be complementary to that of the red PL emerging at around 2 eV, which is caused by the crystal imperfection of the films along the c-axis. The increased film-growth temperature and subsequent heat treatment at low temperatures prominently reduced the red PL, which resulted in the above excellent features of the polycrystalline ZnO films.

Summary 1. The adelgid Adelges japonicus induces shoot galls in ezo-spruce Picea jezoensis. The relative importance of shoot characteristics and the number of adelgids that induce a gall in determining resource availability on a shoot was examined. Gall volume, which is highly correlated with the number of larvae that mature in a gall, was used as a measure of resources available for adelgids on a shoot. Gall volume was partitioned into two components: the number of chambers and the chamber volume. 2. Path analysis revealed that the number of chambers in a gall was not affected by the number of leaves (which is an indirect measure of shoot length), the whorl where the gall was attached, or the number of surrounding shoots arising from the 1-year-old parent shoot. Each of these shoot characteristics, however, affected chamber volume: chamber volume increased with increasing numbers of leaves and surrounding shoots and with increasing heights of the whorls. 3. Two generations of adelgids contributed to gall enlargement in different ways: the number of gall founders affected the number of chambers, and the number of gall inhabitants affected chamber volume. 4. In a path diagram that incorporated the effects of both shoot characteristics and the numbers of adelgids, the numbers of adelgids in the two generations together accounted for 30% of the variance in gall volume, whereas the three shoot characteristics explained only 3.7% of the variance. This suggests that the amount of resources available in a gall is affected mainly by the numbers of adelgids but only slightly by shoot characteristics.

The scale insect, Aulacaspic marina Takagi and Williams, has killed a large number of mangroves, Rhizophora mucronata Lamk., planted in abandoned shrimp ponds on Bali Island, Indonesia. In this study, we developed a control method for A. marina using seawater. An examination of the relationship between tree height and leaf damage in an R. mucronata plantation indicated that A. marina did not damage R. mucronata when the saplings were lower than the highest sea level of the spring tide, resulting in the saplings being periodically submerged in seawater by changes in tidal level. To examine how seawater submergence prevents this damage, crawlers of A. marina were artificially transferred to R. mucronata seedlings on which seawater or fresh water were sprayed daily. The crawlers settled on more than 90% of the leaves in fresh-water-sprayed and unsprayed seedlings but only on 37% of the leaves in seawater-sprayed seedlings, indicating that seawater helped prevent crawler settlement. To develop a control method using this seawater effect, seawater was sprayed on damaged saplings in an R. mucronata plantation at weekly intervals using two types of sprayers. In these saplings, leaf damage was lower than that of control saplings after spraying for five or nine weeks for each type of sprayer, respectively. This indicates that periodic spraying of seawater is an effective control measure against A. marina.