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Many enzymes in nature utilize a free arginine (L-Arg) amino acid to initiate the biosynthesis of natural products. Examples include nitric oxide synthases, which generate NO from L-Arg for blood pressure control, and various arginine hydroxylases involved in antibiotic biosynthesis. Among the groups of arginine hydroxylases, several enzymes utilize a nonheme iron(II) active site and let L-Arg react with dioxygen and α-ketoglutarate to perform either C3-hydroxylation, C4- hydroxylation, C5-hydroxylation, or C4-C5-desaturation. How these seemingly similar enzymes can react with high specificity and selectivity to form different products remains unknown. Over the past few years, our groups have investigated the mechanisms of L-Arg-activating nonheme iron dioxygenases, including the viomycin biosynthesis enzyme VioC, the naphthyridinomycin biosynthesis enzyme NapI, and the streptothricin biosynthesis enzyme OrfP, using computational approaches and applied molecular dynamics, quantum mechanics on cluster models, and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) approaches. These studies not only highlight the differences in substrate and oxidant binding and positioning but also emphasize on electronic and electrostatic differences in the substrate-binding pockets of the enzymes. In particular, due to charge differences in the active site structures, there are changes in the local electric field and electric dipole moment orientations that either strengthen or weaken specific substrate C-H bonds. The local field effects, therefore, influence and guide reaction selectivity and specificity and give the enzymes their unique reactivity patterns. Computational work using either QM/MM or density functional theory (DFT) on cluster models can provide valuable insights into catalytic reaction mechanisms and produce accurate and reliable data that can be used to engineer proteins and synthetic catalysts to perform novel reaction pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

5-fluorouracil (5-FU), which is a commonly used chemotherapy agent exerts undesired cardiac toxicity. Mitochondrial dysfunction is thought to be one of potentially important mechanisms of 5-FUinduced cardiotoxicity. a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (a-KGDHC) is the key regulatory enzyme of TCA cycle. The complex consists of multiple copies of three catalytic subunits: a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (E1), dihydrolipoamide succinyltransferase (E2) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3). a-KGDHC together with branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKDHC) and pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDHC), are the members of 2-oxoacid dehydrogenases family that share some structural and functional similarities. Recently, it has been found that 5-FU stimulates BCKDHC in rat's cardiac muscle. Therefore, we hypothesize that 5-FU modifies a-KGDHC activity and affects cardiac muscle metabolism. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of 5-FU on a-KGDHC activity and protein levels of E1 and E2 subunits of the complex in rat's cardiac muscle. Wistar male rats were administered with 4 doses of 5-FU, 150 mg/kg b. wt. each (study group) or 0.3% methylcellulose (control group). a-KGDHC activity was assayed spectrophotometrically. The E1 and E2 proteins levels were quantified by Western blot. 5-FU administration resulted in stimulation of myocardial a-KGDHC activity in rats. In addition, E2 protein level increased in response to 5-FU treatment, while the E1 protein level remained unchanged. Upregulation of a-KGDHC appears to result from change in E2 subunit protein level. However, the effect of 5-FU on factors modifying a-KGDHC activity at post-translational level cannot be excluded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC) consists of three different subunits encoded by OGDH (or OGDHL), DLST, and DLD, combined in different stoichiometries. DLD subunit is shared between KGDHC and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex, and the glycine cleavage system. Despite KGDHC's implication in neurodegenerative diseases, cell-specific localization of its subunits in the adult human brain has never been investigated. Here, we show that immunoreactivity of all known isoforms of OGDHL, OGDH, and DLST was detected exclusively in neurons of surgical human cortical tissue samples identified by their morphology and visualized by double labeling with fluorescent Nissl, while being absent from glia expressing GFAP, Aldhl1, myelin basic protein, Olig2, or IBA1. In contrast, DLD immunoreactivity was evident in both neurons and glia. Specificity of anti-KGDHC subunits antisera was verified by a decrease in staining of siRNA-treated human cancer cell lines directed against the respective coding gene products; furthermore, immunoreactivity of KGDHC subunits in human fibroblasts co-localized > 99% with mitotracker orange, while western blotting of 63 post-mortem brain samples and purified recombinant proteins afforded further assurance regarding antisera monospecificity. KGDHC subunit immunoreactivity correlated with data from the Human Protein Atlas as well as RNA-Seq data from the Allen Brain Atlas corresponding to genes coding for KGDHC components. Protein lysine succinylation, however, was immunohistochemically evident in all cortical cells; this was unexpected, because this posttranslational modification requires succinyl-CoA, the product of KGDHC. In view of the fact that glia of the human brain cortex lack succinate-CoA ligase, an enzyme producing succinyl-CoA when operating in reverse, protein lysine succinylation in these cells must exclusively rely on propionate and/or ketone body metabolism or some other yet to be discovered pathway encompassing succinyl-CoA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Affinity peptides successfully mediates the self-assembly of multiple enzymes. • Multi-enzyme complexes enable in situ elimination of H 2 O 2 from the cascade system. • Multi-enzyme assembly facilitates Fe(II)/α-KG-dependent dioxygenase catalysis. • (2 S ,3 R ,4 S)-4-hydroxyisoleucine was produced via one-pot cascade reaction. Fe(II)/α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases (Fe(II)/α-KG DOs) are powerful biocatalysts for C H bond hydroxylation, generating diverse high-value molecules. An inadequate cosubstrate α-KG supply leads to low yields of the desired products. Currently, L -glutamate oxidase (LGOX) is used to generate α-KG and cascades with catalase (KatG) to eliminate H 2 O 2 (a by-product of LGOX), an inhibitor of Fe(II)/α-KG DOs. However, free enzymes still cause H 2 O 2 accumulation, inhibiting Fe(II)/α-KG DO activity. Here, we employed RIAD-RIDD short peptides to form LGOX-KatG specific 1:2 ratio self-assembled tri-enzyme units using a scaffold-free strategy to obtain structural insights via computational analysis and to avoid H 2 O 2 toxicity to achieve high yield of a promising anti-diabetic drug (2 S ,3 R ,4 S)-4-hydroxyisoleucine in a one-pot system. A conversion of >95 % was achieved at a 100 mM isoleucine within 7 h, with 2.00 g·L−1·h−1 space-time yield. This work provides a universal, industrially attractive approach for supplying a cosubstrate for Fe(II)/α-KG DO catalyzing hydroxylation. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Host cell metabolism can be modulated by viral infection, affecting viral survival or clearance. Yet the cellular metabolism rewiring mediated by the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in interactions between virus and host remains largely unknown. Here we report that in response to viral infection, host cells impair the enzymatic activity of the RNA m6A demethylase ALKBH5. This behavior increases the m6A methylation on a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (OGDH) messenger RNA (mRNA) to reduce its mRNA stability and protein expression. Reduced OGDH decreases the production of the metabolite itaconate that is required for viral replication. With reduced OGDH and itaconate production in vivo, Alkbh5-deficient mice display innate immune response–independent resistance to viral exposure. Our findings reveal that m6A RNA modification–mediated down-regulation of the OGDH-itaconate pathway reprograms cellular metabolism to inhibit viral replication, proposing potential targets for controlling viral infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of topiramate on the fat mass/obesity-associated protein (FTO) and on the neuropeptide Y (NPY) level in the hypothalamus depending on the recently increased prevalence of obesity. Method: In this study, twenty-four female rats were divided into four equal groups: Non-obese control, obese control, non-obese topiramate, and obese topiramate. Obese groups were fed with a 40% high-fat diet. At the end of the 9th week, the drug treatment started and the subjects were treated with topiramate once a day for 6 weeks. All animals underwent cardiac perfusion under high-dose anesthesia on the 15th week. Tissues were analyzed using biochemical, histological, and stereological methods. Results: In terms of neuron number in the arcuate nucleus area, a significant difference was observed among all groups (P < 0.01). The neuron number of the non-obese topiramate group was found to be significantly higher than that of the non-obese control group (P < 0.01). In the examination of the ventromedial nucleus of the entire group, it was observed that the neuron number of the non-obese control group was significantly lower than those of the other groups (P < 0.01). A significant increase in the NPY levels of the obese groups compared to the groups treated with topiramate was observed. Furthermore, the amount of the FTO protein increased in obese rats, while FTO and NPY levels decreased in the groups treated with topiramate. Discussion: In conclusion, the mechanism of the effect of topiramate to create a state of obesity is thought to involve the decrease in the levels of NPY and FTO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In recent years, Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a model for studies on aluminum toxicity. The current study aimed to disclose the mechanisms of aluminum toxicity in D. melanogaster at larval and adult stages and examined the potential protective effects of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG). Flies were reared on food containing 10 mM AlCl 3 , 10 mM AKG or both additives. Rearing on an AlCl 3 -containing diet induced behavioral defects, and decreased fecundity and long-term survival of female flies. The addition of dietary AKG did not ameliorate locomotor and taste behavior defects or the higher sensitivity to oxidative stress, but improved heat stress resistance, egg-laying capability and survival of females treated with AlCl 3. Metabolic effects of AlCl 3 exposure on flies included an imbalance of metal content, decreased glucose levels, increased free iron and storage triacylglyceride (TAG) levels, mitochondria dysfunction, and the development of oxidative stress. Dietary AKG did not prevent AlCl 3 effects on glucose and TAG, but improved metal homeostasis, inhibited the increase in free Fe and restored the functional activity of iron-containing enzymes such as aconitase. In addition, AKG decreased the intensity of oxidative stress seen in AlCl 3 -reared adult flies, probably due to inhibition of iron mobilization. The results show that AKG is not a full antidote against Al toxicity but is able to relieve multiple metabolic effects of high aluminum. Furthermore, the modulating ability of AKG can clearly be helpful in exploring the molecular mechanisms of Al toxicity. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) alleviates developmental toxicity of AlC 3 in D. melanogaster. • AKG partially prevents behavior changes and viability loss induced by AlCl 3 in adult flies. • AlCl 3 induces metal imbalance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress in adult flies. • AKG improves metal homeostasis and decreases intensity of oxidative stress in AlCl 3 -reared flies. • Protective effects of AKG seem to be accounted for its both prooxidant and antioxidant activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Streptococcus pneumoniae displays increased resistance to antibiotic therapy following biofilm formation. A genome-wide search revealed that SP 0320 and SP 0675 (respectively annotated as 5-keto-D-gluconate-5-reductase and glucose dehydrogenase) contain the highest degree of homology to CsgA of Myxococcus xanthus, a signaling factor that promotes cell aggregation and biofilm formation. Single and double SP 0320 and SP 0675 knockout mutants were created in strain BS72; however, no differences were observed in the biofilm-forming phenotypes of mutants compared to the wild type strain. Using the chinchilla model of otitis media and invasive disease, all three mutants exhibited greatly increased virulence compared to the wild type strain (increased pus formation, tympanic membrane rupture, mortality rates). The SP 0320 gene is located in an operon with SP 0317, SP 0318 and SP 0319, which we bioinformatically annotated as being part of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway. Deletion of SP 0317 also resulted in increased mortality in chinchillas; however, mutations in SP 0318 and SP 0319 did not alter the virulence of bacteria compared to the wild type strain. Complementing the SP 0317, SP 0320 and SP 0675 mutant strains reversed the virulence phenotype. We prepared recombinant SP 0317, SP 0318, SP 0320 and SP 0675 proteins and confirmed their functions. These data reveal that disruption of genes involved in the degradation of ketogluconate, the Entner-Doudoroff pathway, and glucose dehydrogenase significantly increase the virulence of bacteria in vivo; two hypothetical models involving virulence triggered by reduced in carbon-flux through the glycolytic pathways are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) catalyzes the reversible deamination of L-glutamate to α-ketoglutarate and ammonia. In mammals, GDH contributes to important processes such as amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism, energy production, ammonia management, neurotransmitter recycling and insulin secretion. In humans, two isoforms of GDH are found, namely hGDH1 and hGDH2, with the former being ubiquitously expressed and the latter found mainly in brain, testis and kidney. These two iso-enzymes display highly divergent allosteric properties, especially concerning their basal activity, ADP activation and GTP inhibition. On the other hand, both enzymes are thought to predominantly localize in the mitochondrial matrix, even though alternative localizations have been proposed. To further study the subcellular localization of the two human iso-enzymes, we created HEK293 cell lines stably over-expressing hGDH1 and hGDH2. In these cell lines, immunofluorescence and enzymatic analyses verified the overexpression of both hGDH1 and hGDH2 iso-enzymes, whereas subcellular fractionation followed by immunoblotting showed their predominantly mitochondrial localization. Given that previous studies have only indirectly compared the subcellular localization of the two iso-enzymes, we co-expressed them tagged with different fluorescent dyes (green and red fluorescent protein for hGDH1 and hGDH2, respectively) and found them to co-localize. Despite the wealth of information related to the functional properties of hGDH1 and hGDH2 and the availability of the hGDH1 structure, there is still an ongoing debate concerning their metabolic role and their involvement in disease processes. Data on the localization of hGDHs, as the ones presented here, could contribute to better understanding of the function of these important human enzymes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In-vitro, glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) catalyzes the reversible oxidative deamination of glutamate to α-ketoglutarate (α-KG). GDH is found in all organisms, but in animals is allosterically regulated by a wide array of metabolites. For many years, it was not at all clear why animals required such complex control. Further, in both standard textbooks and some research publications, there has been some controversy as to the directionality of the reaction. Here we review recent work demonstrating that GDH operates mainly in the catabolic direction in-vivo and that the finely tuned network of allosteric regulators allows GDH to meet the varied needs in a wide range of tissues in animals. Finally, we review the progress in using pharmacological agents to activate or inhibit GDH that could impact a wide range of pathologies from insulin disorders to tumor growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monoallelic point mutations in the gene encoding the cytosolic, NADPβ-dependent enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) cause increased production of the oncometabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG) in multiple cancers. Most IDH1 mutant tumors retain one wildtype (WT) IDH1 allele. Several studies have proposed that retention of this WT allele is protumorigenic by facilitating substrate channeling through a WT-mutant IDH1 heterodimer, with the WT subunit generating a local supply of α-ketoglutarate and NADPH that is then consumed by the mutant subunit to produce 2-HG. Here, we confirmed that coexpression of WT and mutant IDH1 subunits leads to formation of WT-mutant hetero-oligomers and increases 2-HG production. An analysis of a recently reported crystal structure of the WT-R132H IDH1 heterodimer and of in vitro kinetic parameters for 2-HG production, however, indicated that substrate channeling between the subunits is biophysically implausible. We also found that putative carbon-substrate flux between WT and mutant IDH1 subunits is inconsistent with the results of isotope tracing experiments in cancer cells harboring an endogenous monoallelic IDH1 mutation. Finally, using a mathematical model of WT-mutant IDH1 heterodimers, we estimated that theNADPH:NADPβ ratio is higher in the cytosol than in the mitochondria, suggesting that NADPH is unlikely to be limiting for 2-HG production in the cytosol. These findings argue against supply of either substrate being limiting for 2-HG production by a cytosolic IDH1 mutant and suggest that the retention of a WT allele in IDH1 mutant tumors is not due to a requirement for carbon or cofactor flux between WT and mutant IDH1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Imbalanced dietary levels of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are known to produce antagonistic effects in pigs, rats and humans, affecting the concentration of BCAAs in plasma and ultimately depressing growth. In fish, antagonism involving BCAAs has not been fully characterized or understood. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of imbalanced dietary levels of BCAAs on growth performance and amino acid utilization of juvenile red drum. A control diet was prepared by combining lyophilized red drum muscle and crystalline amino acids, while keeping leucine (Leu), isoleucine (Ile) and valine (Val) at the previously quantified minimum dietary requirement levels for red drum. Six experimental diets were prepared by supplementing the control diet with (1) an excess of Leu, (2) an excess of Ile, (3) an excess of Val, (4) an excess of Leu and Ile, (5) an excess of Ile and Val, and (6) an excess of Leu and Val. Red drum juveniles were stocked in 38-L glass aquaria, and diets were fed to fish in triplicate aquaria, twice daily, for 45 d. At the end of the feeding trial, growth performance was evaluated and postprandial levels of BCAAs in plasma were analyzed. Growth performance of red drum was significantly depressed by an excess of dietary Leu, but not by an excess of Ile nor Val. The postprandial concentration of plasma Leu, Ile or Val was significantly higher in fish fed an excess of Leu, Ile or Val, respectively. Postprandial levels of BCAAs in plasma did not indicate that an excess of Leu blocked the intestinal absorption or promoted the catabolism of Ile and/or Val in red drum, as has been reported in other species. However, excess Leu did significantly reduce the postprandial concentration of α-ketoglutarate in plasma, possibly indicating a higher ratio of transamination due to the imbalanced postprandial concentration of BCAAs in plasma. In conclusion, an antagonistic effect due to excess dietary Leu was confirmed in juvenile red drum. This study represents a step forward in understanding the nature of the antagonistic effects among BCAAs in fish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The aim of the study was to examine whether a rat model of liver cirrhosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is a suitable model of muscle wasting and alterations in amino acid metabolism in cirrhotic humans. Rats were treated by intragastric gavage of CCl4 or vehicle for 45 days. Blood plasma and different muscle types—tibialis anterior (mostly white fibres), soleus (red muscle) and extensor digitorum longus (white muscle) ‐ were analysed at the end of the study. Characteristic biomarkers of impaired hepatic function were found in the plasma of cirrhotic animals. The weights and protein contents of all muscles of CCl4‐treated animals were lower when compared with controls. Increased concentrations of glutamine (GLN) and aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine and tyrosine) and decreased concentrations of branched‐chain amino acids (BCAA), glutamate (GLU), alanine and aspartate were found in plasma and muscles. In the soleus muscle, GLN increased more and GLU and BCAA decreased less than in the extensor digitorum and tibialis muscles. Increased chymotrypsin‐like activity (indicating enhanced proteolysis) and decreased α‐ketoglutarate and ATP levels were found in muscles of cirrhotic animals. ATP concentration also decreased in blood plasma. It is concluded that a rat model of CCl4‐induced cirrhosis is a valid model for the investigation of hepatic cachexia that exhibits alterations in line with a theory of role of ammonia in pathogenesis of BCAA depletion, citric cycle and mitochondria dysfunction, and muscle wasting in cirrhotic subjects. The findings indicate more effective ammonia detoxification to GLN in red than in white muscles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract In hyperalkaline aqueous solutions the calcium ion is capable of forming rare Ca2+-enolato type mono- and polynuclear chelate complexes both with α- and with β-ketoglutarate. Abstract In the present study, the proton dissociation and calcium complex formation reactions of α- and β-ketoglutarate (2- and 3-oxopentane-dioate, α-Ket2− and β-Ket2−, respectively) in neutral and alkaline aqueous solutions were explored. From potentiometric measurements, the equilibrium constants of the [Ca(α-Ket)]0 and [Ca(β-Ket)]0 complexes formed in neutral medium were determined to be log K 1,1 α = 1.15 ± 0.02 and log K 1,1 β = 0.78 ± 0.02, respectively. In alkaline medium, it was found for both ligands that the methylene group underwent deprotonation yielding the carbanion-enolate anion. The deprotonation constants, p K a α and p K a β, were found to be 15.16 ± 0.01 and 14.41 ± 0.01, respectively. The calcium complexing behaviour of the two ligands was also studied in strongly alkaline medium. Under these conditions, the Ca2+ ion was capable of promoting the deprotonation of the ligands and forming various enolato-type complexes. The formation of both mono- and binuclear species were deduced, their formulae are suggested to be [Ca(α-Ket)H −1 ]−, [Ca 2 (α-Ket)H −3 ]−, [Ca(β-Ket)H −1 ]−, [Ca 2 (β-Ket)H −1 ]+ with the formation constants of log β 11−1 α = −11.91 ± 0.02, log β 21−3 α = −36.10 ± 0.06, log β 11−1 β = −11.58 ± 0.01, log β 21−1 β = −10.80 ± 0.03, respectively. Beside the formation of the rare Ca2+-enolato complexes, the deprotonation of the hydrating water molecules around the Ca2+ ion was also invoked in some cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transformations of transaminases have been extensively studied as an approach to the production of chiral amino moieties. However, the low equilibrium conversion of the reaction is a critical disadvantage to transaminase application, and a strategy for shifting the reaction equilibrium is essential. Herein, we have developed a novel method to effectively prevent the reversibility of transamination by fully decomposing byproduct α-ketoglutarate into ethylene and carbon dioxide in situ using ethylene-forming enzyme (EFE). Two transaminases and one EFE were expressed in E. coli and purified to be used in the cascade reaction. After optimal reaction conditions were determined based on the enzymatic properties, a cascade reaction coupling transaminase with EFE was conducted and showed high efficiency in the synthesis of L-phosphinothricin. Finally, using this approach with only an equivalent amount of amino donor L-glutamate increased the conversions of various keto acids from < 60% to > 99%. This strategy shows great potential for transamination using glutamate as the amino donor.Graphical Abstract: [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) drive most low-grade gliomas and secondary glioblastomas and many chondrosarcomas and acute myeloid leukemia cases. Most tumor-relevant IDH1 mutations are deficient in the normal oxidization of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate (αKG), but gain the neomorphic activity of reducing αKG to D-2-hydroxyglutarate (D2HG), which drives tumorigenesis. We found previously that IDH1 mutants exhibit one of two reactivities: deficient αKG and moderate D2HG production (including commonly observed R132H and R132C) or moderate αKG and high D2HG production (R132Q). Here, we identify a third type of reactivity, deficient αKG and high D2HG production (R132L). We show that R132Q IDH1 has unique structural features and distinct reactivities towards mutant IDH1 inhibitors. Biochemical and cell-based assays demonstrate that while most tumor-relevant mutations were effectively inhibited by mutant IDH1 inhibitors, R132Q IDH1 had up to a 16 300-fold increase in IC50 versus R132H IDH1. Only compounds that inhibited wild-type (WT) IDH1 were effective against R132Q. This suggests that patients with a R132Q mutation may have a poor response to mutant IDH1 therapies. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that near the NADP+/NADPH-binding site in R132Q IDH1, a pair of α-helices switches between conformations that are more wild-type-like or more mutant-like, highlighting mechanisms for preserved WT activity. Dihedral angle changes in the dimer interface and buried surface area charges highlight possible mechanisms for loss of inhibitor affinity against R132Q. This work provides a platform for predicting a patient's therapeutic response and identifies a potential resistance mutation that may arise upon treatment with mutant IDH inhibitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Main conclusion: Blocking α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase results in up-regulation of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) shunt activity, and inhibits the growth of poplar adventitious roots (ARs), indicating that AR growth is closely associated with GABA shunt. γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) shunt starts from α-ketoglutarate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, which is thought to represent the cross road between carbon and nitrogen metabolism. Previous studies (Araújo et al. 2012b, Plant Cell 24: 2328-2351) have shown that blocking α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDH) affects the GABA shunt activity, and inhibits growth. However, its effects on the growth of adventitious roots (ARs) are unclear. In this study, the growth of ARs in tissue-cultured 84K poplar (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa cv. ‘84K’) was significantly inhibited when succinyl phosphate (SP), a specific inhibitor of α-KGDH, was supplied. The inhibition of ARs was associated with significant changes in the levels of soluble sugars, organic acids, and amino acids, and was coupled with the up-regulation of the GABA shunt activity at the transcriptional and translational levels. Exogenous GABA also inhibited AR growth following the increase of the endogenous GABA level. Transcriptomic analyses further showed that genes related to cell wall carbon metabolism and phytohormone (indoleacetic acid, ABA, and ethylene) signaling were affected by the changes of GABA shunt activity, resulting from the α-KGDH inhibition. Thus, our study indicates that the inhibition of poplar AR growth by blocking α-KGDH is closely associated with GABA shunt, which would benefit a better understanding of GABA’s roles in plant development and stress response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During erythroid differentiation, the erythron must remodel its protein constituents so that the mature red cell contains hemoglobin as the chief cytoplasmic protein component. For this, ~109 molecules of heme must be synthesized, consuming 1010 molecules of succinyl-CoA. It has long been assumed that the source of succinyl-coenzyme A (CoA) for heme synthesis in all cell types is the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Based upon the observation that 1 subunit of succinyl-CoA synthetase (SCS) physically interacts with the first enzyme of heme synthesis (5-aminolevulinate synthase 2, ALAS2) in erythroid cells, it has been posited that succinyl-CoA for ALA synthesis is provided by the adenosine triphosphate-dependent reverse SCS reaction. We have now demonstrated that this is not the manner by which developing erythroid cells provide succinyl-CoA for ALA synthesis. Instead, during late stages of erythropoiesis, cellular metabolism is remodeled so that glutamine is the precursor for ALA following deamination to α-ketoglutarate and conversion to succinyl-CoA by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KDH) without equilibration or passage through the TCA cycle. This may be facilitated by a direct interaction between ALAS2 and KDH. Succinate is not an effective precursor for heme, indicating that the SCS reverse reaction does not play a role in providing succinyl-CoA for heme synthesis. Inhibition of succinate dehydrogenase by itaconate, which has been shown in macrophages to dramatically increase the concentration of intracellular succinate, does not stimulate heme synthesis as might be anticipated, but actually inhibits hemoglobinization during late erythropoiesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study used an in vitro model of cold cardioplegia in isolated working rat hearts to evaluate the possible effects of two flavonoids, astragalin and dihydromyricetin, as adjuncts to histidine-tryptophan-ketoglutarate (HTK) cardioplegia. The following three groups of male Sprague Dawley rats were evaluated: The HTK group, treated with HTK alone; the HTK-A group, treated with 10 µmol/l astragalin; and the HTK-D group, treated with 10 µmol/l dihydromyricetin. Isolated rat hearts were perfused with Krebs-Henseleit buffer for 30 min and incubated with the respective cardioplegic solution for 6 h at 4°C. Subsequently, astragalin or dihydromyricetin was added to the cardioplegic solutions. Following 30 min of reperfusion, the left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP), maximum up/down rate of left ventricular pressure (±dp/dtmax) and heart rate were documented as indices of myocardial function using a physiological recorder. Myocardial infarct size (IS) was estimated using 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) levels were also determined to assess the degree of cardiac injury. Cardiomyocyte apoptosis analysis was performed using an in situ cell death detection kit. In addition, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, as well as the glutathione/glutathione disulfide (GSH/GSSG) ratio were determined and analyzed using ELISA kits. The protein levels of caspase-9 and B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) were determined using western blot analysis. The results demonstrated that exposure to astragalin or dihydromyricetin significantly improved the recovery of LVDP (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively), the +dP/dtmax (P<0.05 for dihydromyricetin only) and the -dP/dtmax (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively), increased SOD levels (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively) and GSH/GSSG ratios (P<0.05), reduced myocardial IS (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively), decreased CK, LDH, IL-6 (all P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively), MDA (P<0.05), CRP (P<0.05) and TNF-α levels (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively), increased Bcl-2 levels (P<0.01) and decreased caspase-9 levels (P<0.01). The results indicated that the addition of either flavonoid (particularly dihydromyricetin) to HTK enhances protection during ischemia, decreases myocardial dysfunction by enhancing anti-inflammatory activities, attenuates myocardial oxidative injury and prevents apoptosis during ischemia/reperfusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Provision of NAD + for oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA by the ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC) is critical for maintained operation of succinyl-CoA ligase yielding high-energy phosphates, a process known as mitochondrial substrate-level phosphorylation (mSLP). We have shown previously that when NADH oxidation by complex I is inhibited by rotenone or anoxia, mitochondrial diaphorases yield NAD + , provided that suitable quinones are present (Kiss G et al., FASEB J 2014, 28:1682). This allows for KGDHC reaction to proceed and as an extension of this, mSLP. NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) is an enzyme exhibiting diaphorase activity. Here, by using Nqo1 −/− and WT littermate mice we show that in rotenone-treated, isolated liver mitochondria 2-methoxy-1,4-naphtoquinone (MNQ) is preferentially reduced by matrix Nqo1 yielding NAD + to KGDHC, supporting mSLP. This process was sensitive to inhibition by specific diaphorase inhibitors. Reduction of idebenone and its analogues MRQ-20 and MRQ-56, menadione, mitoquinone and duroquinone were unaffected by genetic disruption of the Nqo1 gene. The results allow for the conclusions that i) MNQ is a Nqo1-preferred substrate, and ii) in the presence of suitable quinones, mitochondrially-localized diaphorases other than Nqo1 support NADH oxidation when complex I is inhibited. Our work confirms that complex I bypass can occur by quinones reduced by intramitochondrial diaphorases oxidizing NADH, ultimately supporting mSLP. Finally, it may help to elucidate structure-activity relationships of redox-active quinones with diaphorase enzymes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract—: A new restricted facultative methylotroph, strain LTKT, isolated from the water of a small freshwater reservoir, was found to carry out the KDPG variant of the ribulose monophosphate pathway of С1 meta-bolism. The cells of the isolate were aerobic, gram-negative, non-spore-forming, nonmotile rods reproducing by binary fission. The isolate was mesophilic and neutrophilic; it synthesized indole derivatives. Hexadecanoic (C16:0) and cis-9-hexadecenoic (C16:1ω7) acids were the major fatty acids, and Q8 was the major ubiquinone. Phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylglycerol were the dominant phospholipids, while diphosphatidylglycerol was not present. Activities of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and glutamate dehydrogenase were not revealed. Ammonium was assimilated via the enzyme system of the glutamate cycle. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain LTKT exhibited high similarity to those of Methylophilus species: 99.6% to M. leisingeri DM11T and 99.4% to M. flavus ShipT. DNA‒DNA homology between strain LTKT and M. leisingeri DM11T and M. flavus ShipT was 47 and 40%, respectively. Based on these data, strain LTKT was assigned to the new species, Methylophilus aquaticus sp. nov. (= VKM B-3159T = JCM 32032T = CCUG 70602T). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mesaconate, a branched unsaturated dicarboxylic acid, has drawn great interest because of its versatile applications. In this work, we optimized the fermentation efficiency of Escherichia coli to produce mesaconate from glucose. We first drove the carbon flux to 2-ketoglutarate by overexpressing genes involved in TCA precursor pathway and anaplerotic pathways. Then, to increase the pool of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), an upstream precursor for 2-ketoglutarate, the phosphotransferase system (PTS) of E. coli was inactivated by deleting glucose PTS permease and the import of glucose was altered by overexpressing galactose/H+ symporter GalP. Further, production optimization was achieved by deleting a class I fumarase (FumA) to block the hydration of mesaconate. Finally, we overexpressed PEP synthase (PpsA) to increase the availability of phosphoenolpyruvate and accelerate the production of mesaconate. These genetic modifications led to mesaconate production with a titer of 23.1 g L−1 and a yield of 0.46 g g−1 glucose (64% of the theoretical maximum). This work demonstrates the possibility of engineering a highly efficient bacteria strain that converts glucose into mesaconate with promising titer, rate, and yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Covering: up to 2018 α-Ketoglutarate (αKG, also known as 2-oxoglutarate)-dependent mononuclear non-haem iron (αKG-NHFe) enzymes catalyze a wide range of biochemical reactions, including hydroxylation, ring fragmentation, C–C bond cleavage, epimerization, desaturation, endoperoxidation and heterocycle formation. These enzymes utilize iron(ii) as the metallo-cofactor and αKG as the co-substrate. Herein, we summarize several novel αKG-NHFe enzymes involved in natural product biosyntheses discovered in recent years, including halogenation reactions, amino acid modifications and tailoring reactions in the biosynthesis of terpenes, lipids, fatty acids and phosphonates. We also conducted a survey of the currently available structures of αKG-NHFe enzymes, in which αKG binds to the metallo-centre bidentately through either a proximal- or distal-type binding mode. Future structure–function and structure–reactivity relationship investigations will provide crucial information regarding how activities in this large class of enzymes have been fine-tuned in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taurine/α-ketoglutarate (αKG) dioxygenase (TauD) is an E. coli nonheme Fe2+- and αKG-dependent metalloenzyme that catalyzes the hydroxylation of taurine, leading to the production of sulfite. The metal-dependent active site in TauD is formed by two histidine and one aspartate that coordinating to one face of an octahedral coordination geometry, known as the 2-His-1-carboxylate facial triad. This motif is found in many nonheme Fe2+ proteins, but there is limited information on the thermodynamic parameters that govern metal-ion binding to this site. Here, we report data from calorimetry and related biophysical techniques to generate complete thermodynamic profiles of Mn2+ and Co2+ binding to TauD, and these values are compared to the Fe2+ data reported earlier Henderson et al. (Inorg Chem 54: 2278-2283, 2015). The buffer-independent binding constants (K) were measured to be 1.6 × 106, 2.4 × 107, and 1.7 × 109, for Mn2+, Fe2+, and Co2+, respectively. The corresponding ΔG° values were calculated to be − 8.4, − 10.1, and − 12.5 kcal/mol, respectively. The metal-binding enthalpy changes (ΔH) for these binding events are − 11.1 (± 0.1), − 12.2 (± 0.1), and − 16.0 (± 0.6) kcal/mol, respectively. These data are fully consistent with the Irving-Williams series, which show an increasing affinity for transition metal ions across the periodic table. It appears that the periodic increase in affinity, however, is a result of a complicated summation of enthalpy terms (including favorable metal-ion coordination processes and unfavorable ionization events) and related entropy terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caulobacter crescentus is a gram-negative bacterium that can utilize xylose as a substrate using the Weimberg pathway, which converts xylose to α-ketoglutarate in five steps without carbon loss. This is an interesting pathway for heterologous expression in other organisms in order to enable xylose utilization in biorefinery processes. C. crescentus was grown on xylose, arabinose and glucose, and maximum specific growth rates determined for the three substrates were 0.11 h-1, 0.05 h-1, and 0.15 h-1 respectively. Growth was found to be significantly inhibited at sugar concentration of 20 g L-1, shown primarily by an increased lag phase. Enzyme activity assays showed that the Weimberg pathway was active in cells grown, not only on xylose but also on arabinose. No activity was found for growth on glucose. Furthermore, substantial amounts of α-ketoglutarate--up to a yield of 0.4 g g-1--was excreted during growth on xylose, but no other extracellular intermediates in the Weimberg pathway were detected during growth on xylose. Apparently, C. crescentus is not well adapted for efficient growth on high xylose levels, and responds by an extended lag phase and secretion of α-ketoglutarate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research work was to prepare nanosized formulation of alpha ketoglutarate as dry powder inhaler for cyanide poisoning. Nanosizing can be approached by solid phase and liquid phase method. The different conditions encountered in both these approaches can greatly affect the particle characteristics. In this study milling and precipitation technique were compared to study their effect on α-KG particles characteristics. Differences in choice of stabilizers were observed between the two processing techniques. Sonication processes followed by HPH produced small sized particles in which Pluronic F68 was employed as stabilizing agent. Precipitation approach produced ultrafine drug particles by utilizing combination of stabilizers (PVA + PEG 400). Amongst the two sonication processes, probe sonication process produced well stabilized small sized particles. The designed particles showed 43.13 ± 2.36% lung deposition when compared with ultrasonication and precipitation technique that showed 31.69% and 21.67% respirable fraction. The MMAD of the designed particles was found suitable for deep alveolar deposition. Clinical studies (Phase-I trial) showed whole lung deposition of 52.51% for DPI. The P/C ratio was found to be 1.02 suggesting uniform distribution of particles in different lung compartments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Trans‐4‐Hydroxy‐ l‐proline (trans‐Hyp) is a valuable chiral building block for the synthesis of pharmaceutical intermediates. Bioconversion of l‐proline using recombinant strain with proline‐4‐hydroxylase (P4H) is a preferred biocatalytic process in the economical production of trans‐Hyp. In this study, a recombinant E. coli overexpressing hydroxylase (P4H), γ‐glutamyl kinase and glutamate‐semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ProBA) genes were constructed by knocking out the key genes in the metabolism. These key genes contained putA encoding proline dehydrogenase (PutA) in the l‐proline metabolism and other catalytic enzyme genes, sucAB encoding α‐ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (SucAB), aceAK encoding isocitratelyase (AceA) and isocitrate dehydrogenase kinase/phosphatase (AceK) in the TCA cycle. This recombinant strain coupled the synthetic pathway of trans‐Hyp with TCA cycle of the host strain. It inhibited the consumption of l‐proline completely and promoted the accumulation of 2‐oxoglutarate (2‐OG) as a co‐substrate, which realized the highest conversion of glucose to trans‐Hyp. A fed‐batch strategy was designed, capable of producing 31·0 g l−1trans‐Hyp from glucose. It provided a theoretical basis for commercial conversion of glucose to trans‐Hyp. Significance and Impact of the Study:Trans‐4‐Hydroxy‐ l‐proline (trans‐Hyp) is a valuable chiral building block for the synthesis of pharmaceutical intermediates. Unsatisfactory microbial bioconversion resulted in a low yield of trans‐Hyp. In this study, we blocked the unwanted blunting pathways of host strain and make the cell growth couple with the trans‐Hyp synthesis from glucose. Finally, a recombinant Escherichia coli with short‐cut and efficient trans‐Hyp biosynthetic pathway was obtained. It provided a theoretical basis for commercial production of trans‐Hyp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the addition of the prosthetic group lipoate is essential to the activity of critical mitochondrial catabolic enzymes, its regulation is unknown. Here, we show that lipoylation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (αKDH) complexes is a dynamically regulated process that is inhibited under hypoxia and in cancer cells to restrain mitochondrial respiration. Mechanistically, we found that the polymerase-δ interacting protein 2 (Poldip2), a nuclear-encodedmitochondrial protein of unknown function, controls the lipoylation of the pyruvate and α-KDH dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase subunits by a mechanism that involves regulation of the caseinolytic peptidase (Clp)-protease complex and degradation of the lipoate-activating enzyme Ac-CoA synthetase medium-chain family member 1 (ACSM1). ACSM1 is required for the utilization of lipoic acid derived from a salvage pathway, an unacknowledged lipoylation mechanism. In Poldip2-deficient cells, reduced lipoylation represses mitochondrial function and induces the stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) by loss of substrate inhibition of prolyl-4-hydroxylases (PHDs). HIF-1α–mediated retrograde signaling results in a metabolic reprogramming that resembles hypoxic and cancer cell adaptation. Indeed, we observe that Poldip2 expression is down-regulated by hypoxia in a variety of cell types and basally repressed in triple-negative cancer cells, leading to inhibition of lipoylation of the pyruvate and α-KDH complexes and mitochondrial dysfunction. Increasing mitochondrial lipoylation by forced expression of Poldip2 increases respiration and reduces the growth rate of cancer cells. Our work unveils a regulatory mechanism of catabolic enzymes required for metabolic plasticity and highlights the role of Poldip2 as key during hypoxia and cancer cell metabolic adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stress resistance and fermentative capability are important quality characteristics of baker's yeast. In the present study, we examined protective effects of exogenous alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG), an intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and amino acid metabolism, against freeze-thaw and carbohydrate-induced stresses in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Growth on AKG-supplemented medium prevented a loss of viability and improved fermentative capacity of yeast cells after freeze-thaw treatment. The cells grown in the presence of AKG had higher levels of amino acids (e.g., proline), higher metabolic activity and total antioxidant capacity, and higher activities of catalase, NADP-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthase compared to control ones. Both synthesis of amino acids and enhancement of antioxidant system capacity could be involved in AKG-improved freeze-thaw tolerance in S. cerevisiae. Cell viability dramatically decreased under incubation of stationary-phase yeast cells in 2% glucose or fructose solutions (in the absence of the other nutrients) as compared with incubation in distilled water or in 10 mM AKG solution. The decrease in cell viability was accompanied by acidification of the medium, and decrease in cellular respiration, aconitase activity, and levels of total protein and free amino acids. The supplementation with 10 mM AKG effectively prevented carbohydrate-induced yeast death. Protective mechanisms of AKG could be associated with the intensification of respiration and prevention of decreasing protein level as well as with direct antioxidant AKG action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-heme Fe(II)/α-ketoglutarate (αKG)-dependent oxygenases catalyze a wide array of reactions through coupling oxidative decarboxylation of αKG to substrate oxygenation. This class of enzymes follows a sequential mechanism in which O 2 reacts only after binding primary substrate, raising questions over how protein structure tailors molecular access to the Fe(II) cofactor. The enzyme “factor inhibiting hypoxia inducible factor” (FIH) senses pO 2 in human cells by hydroxylating the C-terminal transactivation domain (CTAD), suggesting that structural elements limiting molecular access to the active site may limit the pO 2 response. In this study, we tested the impact of a solvent-accessible tunnel in FIH on molecular access to the active site in FIH. The size of the tunnel was increased through alanine point mutagenesis (Y93A, E105A, and Q147A), followed by a suite of mechanistic and spectroscopic probes. Steady-state kinetics varying O 2 or CTAD indicated that O 2 passage through the tunnel was not affected by Ala substitutions, allowing us to conclude that this narrow tunnel did not impact pO 2 sensing by FIH. Steady-state kinetics with varied αKG concentrations revealed increased substrate inhibition for the Ala variants, suggesting that a second αKG molecule may bind near the active site of FIH. If this solvent-accessible tunnel is the O 2 entry tunnel, it may be narrow in order to permit O 2 access while preventing metabolic intermediates, such as αKG, from inhibiting FIH under physiological conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obesity is one of the main threats to the human health. It is a major risk factor for hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, type II diabetes mellitus, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. FTO gene variants have been associated with obesity and diabetes mellitus in different populations, but its role in the susceptibility of these diseases remains unknown. The present study is undertaken to assess the contribution of the FTO rs17817449 gene variants towards obesity and diabetes development and to evaluate the role of ghrelin and hs- CRP on the outcome of obesity in the Upper Egyptian women. A total of 229 subjects, 115 obese (65 non diabetics, 50 diabetics) and 114 non obese non diabetic controls were included in this case control study. Genotyping of FTO gene rs17817449 (T>G) polymorphism was performed by mutagenically separated PCR (MS-PCR) method. Estimation of serum gherlin, hs-CRP levels, related anthropometric and metabolic parameters were performed. The results revealed higher frequency of FTO rs17817449 G allele among obese subjects (46.5%) and obese diabetics (45%) compared to the controls (33.3%) which comprise about 1.75 times increase in the risk for obesity (p<0.01). The distribution of the GG and TG genotypes of FTO were 25.2%, and 42.6% among obese non diabetic, 24% and 42% among obese diabetic and 14.9% and 36.8% among controls respectively. FTO-GG genotype variant was significantly associated with weight, BMI and waist and hip circumference (p<0.05 for each). FTO GG carriers had 2.54 times the possibility to have obesity more than TT carriers. Ghrelin levels were significantly decreased and hs-CRP levels were significantly increased in obese subjects compared to the controls (P<0.001 for each). There was a significant negative correlation between serum ghrelin and hs-CRP (p<0.05). No significant association was detected between FTO genotypes and each of ghrelin, hs-CRP, lipid profile, fasting glucose or insulin levels. In conclusion, the G allele of FTO rs17817449 genotyping is associated with increased obesity risk but there is a lack of association with diabetes. It is also associated with some obesity indices as BMI, hip and waist circumference in the Upper Egyptian women. Both Ghrelin and hs- CRP could play a role in developing obesity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of FTO SNP in Upper Egyptian women. Switching off this FTO faulty gene variant by the recent therapies (as certain foods or gene therapy) will prevent the percentage of women who is affected by this risk allele to get obese via burning rather than storing energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

α-Ketoglutarate ( AKG) is an extensively used dietary supplement in human and animal nutrition. The aim of the present study was to investigate effects of dietary AKG supplementation on the energy status and anti-oxidative capacity in liver and intestinal mucosa of Cherry Valley ducks. A total of 80 1-day-old ducks were randomly assigned into four groups, in which ducks were fed basal diets supplemented with 0% (control), 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% AKG, respectively. Graded doses of AKG supplementation linearly decreased the ratio of adenosine monophosphate ( AMP) to adenosine triphosphate ( ATP) in the liver, but increased ATP content and adenylate energy charge ( AEC) in a quadratic and linear manner, respectively ( P < 0.05). Increasing dietary AKG supplemental levels produced linear positive responses in ATP content and AEC, and negative responses in AMP concentration, the ratio of AMP to ATP and total adenine nucleotide in the ileal mucosa ( P < 0.05). All levels of dietary AKG reduced the production of jejunal hydrogen peroxide and hepatic malondialdehyde ( P < 0.05). Hepatic and ileal messenger RNA expression of AMP kinase α-1 and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α were linearly up-regulated as dietary AKG supplemental levels increased ( P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary AKG supplementation linearly or quadratically enhanced hepatic and intestinal energy storage and anti-oxidative capacity of Cherry Valley ducks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cotton ( Gossypium hirustum L.) is grown globally as a major source of natural fiber. Nitrogen (N) management is cumbersome in cotton production systems; it has more impacts on yield, maturity, and lint quality of a cotton crop than other primary plant nutrient. Application and production of N fertilizers consume large amounts of energy, and excess application can cause environmental concerns, i.e., nitrate in ground water, and the production of nitrous oxide a highly potent greenhouse gas (GHG) to the atmosphere, which is a global concern. Therefore, improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of cotton plant is critical in this context. Slow-release fertilizers (e.g., polymer-coated urea) have the potential to increase cotton yield and reduce environmental pollution due to more efficient use of nutrients. Limited literature is available on the mitigation of GHG emissions for cotton production. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of N fertilization, in cotton growth and GHG emission management strategies, and will assess, justify, and organize the researchable priorities. Nitrate and ammonium nitrogen are essential nutrients for successful crop production. Ammonia (NH) is a central intermediate in plant N metabolism. NH is assimilated in cotton by the mediation of glutamine synthetase, glutamine (z-) oxoglutarate amino-transferase enzyme systems in two steps: the first step requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to add NH to glutamate to form glutamine (Gln), and the second step transfers the NH from glutamine (Gln) to α-ketoglutarate to form two glutamates. Once NH has been incorporated into glutamate, it can be transferred to other carbon skeletons by various transaminases to form additional amino acids. The glutamate and glutamine formed can rapidly be used for the synthesis of low-molecular-weight organic N compounds (LMWONCs) such as amides, amino acids, ureides, amines, and peptides that are further synthesized into high-molecular-weight organic N compounds (HMWONCs) such as proteins and nucleic acids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 70-day feeding experiment was conducted to assess the effects of α-ketoglutarate ( AKG) supplementation in different protein sources of diets on the growth performance, nitrogen metabolism and related gene expression of mirror carp. Two kinds of protein diets (soybean meal protein source and fish meal and soybean meal compound protein source) and two levels of AKG (0 g kg−1 and 15 g kg−1, respectively) were utilized. Each experimental diet was fed three times a day with five replicates of 20 fish per tank with an average individual weight of 217.93 ± 0.78 g. The results indicated that AKG significantly improved the protein efficiency ratio and decreased the feed conversion rate ( FCR) ( p < .05). Soybean protein significantly decreased the weight gain rate and increased the FCR ( p < .05). In addition, diets with AKG significantly improved the concentration of glutamine and glutamic acid (Glu) in the foregut and hindgut ( p < .05), as well as the glutamine synthetase ( GS) activity in the foregut ( p < .05). Soybean protein significantly decreased the concentration of Glu and GS activity in the hindgut ( p < .05). AKG significantly improved the contents of threonine, alanine, proline and essential amino acid in muscle ( p < .05). Dietary supplementation with AKG significantly improved GS gene expression in the intestine and reduced Rhesus glycoprotein (Rhag and Rhbg) gene expression in the gill ( p < .05). From the results, we know that a diet with AKG is beneficial for the growth and amino acid metabolism of carp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To achieve robust replication, bacteria must integrate cellular metabolism and cell wall growth. While these two processes have been well characterized, the nature and extent of cross-regulation between them is not well understood. Here, using classical genetics, CRISPRi, metabolomics, transcriptomics and chemical complementation approaches, we show that a loss of the master regulator Hfq in Caulobacter crescentus alters central metabolism and results in cell shape defects in a nutrient-dependent manner. We demonstrate that the cell morphology phenotype in the hfq deletion mutant is attributable to a disruption of α-ketoglutarate (KG) homeostasis. In addition to serving as a key intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, KG is a by-product of an enzymatic reaction required for the synthesis of peptidoglycan, a major component of the bacterial cell wall. Accumulation of KG in the hfq deletion mutant interferes with peptidoglycan synthesis, resulting in cell morphology defects and increased susceptibility to peptidoglycan-targeting antibiotics. This work thus reveals a direct crosstalk between the TCA cycle and cell wall morphogenesis. This crosstalk highlights the importance of metabolic homeostasis in not only ensuring adequate availability of biosynthetic precursors, but also in preventing interference with cellular processes in which these intermediates arise as by-products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDHC) and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC) are important sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In addition, it has been found that mitochondria can also serve as sinks for cellular hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). However, the ROS forming and quenching capacity of liver mitochondria has never been thoroughly examined. Here, we show that mouse liver mitochondria use catalase, glutathione (GSH), and peroxiredoxin (PRX) systems to quench ROS. Incubation of mitochondria with catalase inhibitor 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (triazole) induced a significant increase in pyruvate or α-ketoglutarate driven O 2 − /H 2 O 2 formation. 1-Choro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), which depletes glutathione (GSH), elicited a similar effect. Auranofin (AF), a thioredoxin reductase-2 (TR2) inhibitor which disables the PRX system, did not significantly change O 2 − /H 2 O 2 formation. By contrast catalase, GSH, and PRX were all required to scavenging extramitochondrial H 2 O 2 . In this study, the ROS forming potential of PDHC, KGDHC, Complex I, and Complex III was also profiled. Titration of mitochondria with 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid (KMV), a specific inhibitor for O 2 − /H 2 O 2 production by KGDHC, induced a ~ 86% and ~ 84% decrease in ROS production during α-ketoglutarate and pyruvate oxidation. Titration of myxothiazol, a Complex III inhibitor, decreased O 2 − /H 2 O 2 formation by ~ 45%. Rotenone also lowered ROS production in mitochondria metabolizing pyruvate or α-ketoglutarate indicating that Complex I does not contribute to ROS production during forward electron transfer from NADH. Taken together, our results indicate that KGDHC and Complex III are high capacity sites for O 2 − /H 2 O 2 production in mouse liver mitochondria. We also confirm that catalase plays a role in quenching either exogenous or intramitochondrial H 2 O 2 . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1), one member of the IDH family can convert isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) via oxidative decarboxylation. IDH1 and IDH2 mutations have been identified in multiple tumor types and the mutations confer neomorphic activity in the mutant protein, resulting in the conversion of α-KG to the oncometabolite, D-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG). The subsequent accumulation of 2-HG results in epigenetic dysregulation via inhibition of α-KG-dependent histone and DNA demethylase. And the glutamate levels are reduced in IDH mutant cells compared to wild-type. We have known that diffuse gliomas contain a high frequency of mutations in the IDH1 gene. However, the expression of IDH1 and its roles in Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) remain largely unknown. We observed increased expression of IDH1 in neurons after intracerebral hemorrhage. Up-regulation of IDH1 was found to be accompanied by the increased expression of active caspase-3 and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-associated X protein and decreased expression of anti-apoptotic protein B cell lymphoma-2 in vivo and vitro studies. So we hypothesized that IDH1 was involved in the regulation of neuronal apoptosis. The present research for the first time detected the expression and variation of IDH1 surrounding the hematoma, and all data proved the involvement of IDH1 in neuronal apoptosis following ICH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eight isolates from lamb and goatling stomach mucus belonging to Lactobacillus reuteri, Lb. plantarum, Lb. mucosae, Lb. murinus and a dairy strain Lb. reuteri CCM 3625 were characterized for their antifungal activity. The ability of five selected strains to bind aflatoxin B1 was determined in vitro by high-performance liquid chromatography. Impact of pH, inactivated Escherichia coli and additives, namely, phenylalanine, tyrosine and α-ketoglutarate, on the antifungal activity of the strains was evaluated. Production of phenyllactic acid and 4-hydroxyphenyllactic acid was measured in the cell-free supernatant with optimized composition. All tested strains showed antifungal activity against tested fungi (7.4–43.0 % of growth inhibition). The antifungal activity was enhanced at pH 4.0 in most cases. Supplementation of the medium by phenylalanine, tyrosine and α-ketoglutarate increased the antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and Rhizopus oryzae. The best producer of phenyllactic acid was Lb. plantarum KG4 (0.7400 ± 0.0217 mmol·l-1). The tested strains bound 10.8-66.7 % of aflatoxin B1 present in the sample. A combination of both the antifungal activity and activity to bind aflatoxin B1 indicates the potential of the strains to eliminate toxins and fungal contamination of food and feed as well as other substances like heavy metals in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to determine the effects of dietary α-ketoglutarate ( AKG) supplementation on the antioxidant defense system and gene expression of heat shock protein ( HSP) 70 and HSP 90 in hybrid sturgeons Acipenser schrenckii ♀ × A. baerii ♂ exposed to ammonia-N stress. A 2 × 3 factorial experiment was arranged, in which each diet (0%, 1% AKG) was randomly assigned to 0.25 (control) 5 and 10 mg L−1 ammonia-N groups with three replicate aquaria for each 72 h. The 10 mg L−1 ammonia-N significantly increased serum ammonia concentrations and intestinal Gln concentrations and GS activity compared with the 0.25 or 5 mg L−1 ammonia-N groups. The intestinal Gln concentration and GS activity increased, and the serum ammonia concentration decreased, in fish given dietary supplementation of 1.0% AKG compared with fish given diets without AKG. Superoxide dismutase ( SOD) and glutathione peroxidase ( GPx) activity in serum, gills and intestines decreased when fish were exposed to 5 or 10 mg L−1 ammonia-N, and their activity increased in fish given diets with 1% AKG. Catalase in the serum and gills decreased when fish were exposed to 5 or 10 mg L−1 ammonia-N and increased in fish given diets with 1% AKG. The 10 mg L−1 ammonia-N or 1% AKG supplementation increased HSP 70 and HSP 90 gene expression in the liver. The increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, and increased HSP 70 and HSP 90 gene expression in fish fed diets containing 1% AKG suggested higher tolerance to ammonia-N stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many cancer-associated mutations that deregulate cellular metabolic responses to hypoxia also reprogram carbon metabolism to promote utilization of glutamine. In renal cell carcinoma (RCC), cells deficient in the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor gene use glutamine to generate citrate and lipids through reductive carboxylation (RC) of α-ketoglutarate (αKG). Glutamine can also generate aspartate, the carbon source for pyrimidine biosynthesis, and glutathione for redox balance. Here we have shown that VHL-/- RCC cells rely on RC-derived aspartate to maintain de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis. Glutaminase 1 (GLS1) inhibitors depleted pyrimidines and increased ROS in VHL-/- cells but not in VHL+/+ cells, which utilized glucose oxidation for glutamate and aspartate production. GLS1 inhibitor-induced nucleoside depletion and ROS enhancement led to DNA replication stress and activation of an intra-S phase checkpoint, and suppressed the growth of VHL-/- RCC cells. These effects were rescued by administration of glutamate, αKG, or nucleobases with N-acetylcysteine. Further, we observed that the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor olaparib synergizes with GLS1 inhibitors to suppress the growth of VHL-/- cells in vitro and in vivo. This work describes a mechanism that explains the sensitivity of RCC tumor growth to GLS1 inhibitors and supports the development of therapeutic strategies for targeting VHL-deficient RCC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) is α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase and responsible for demethylating N6-methyladenosine (m6A) in mRNA, 3-methylthymine (m3T) in single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and 3-methyluracil (m3U) in single-stranded RNA (ssRNA). Its other function remains unknown but thousands of mammalian DNA show 5-methyl-2'-deoxycytidine (5mdC) modification and 5mdC demethylases are required for mammalian energy homeostasis and fertility. Here, we aimed to confirm whether FTO proteins can demethylate 5mdC in DNA. However, we found that FTO exhibits no potent demethylation activity against 5mdC in vitro and in vivo by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). The result showed FTO demethylase has the characteristics of high substrates specificity and selectivity. In addition, we also used immunofluorescence technique to demonstrate overexpression of wild type TET2, but not FTO and mutant TET2 in Hela cells results in higher levels of 5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxycytidine (5hmdC) generated from 5mdC. In conclusion, our results not only reveal the enzymatic activity of FTO, but also may facilitate the future discovery of proteins involved in epigenetic modification function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the effects of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) supplementation on growth performance, the nitrogen (N) balance, and metabolism of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) in growing pigs. Sixteen healthy animals (Large × White × Landrace) of similar initial weight (40.08 ± 0.78 kg) were randomly assigned to two dietary groups. The pigs were fed a basic diet containing either 0 (control) or 10 g AKG kg −1 for 28 d. Their faeces and urine were collected continuously from Days 23–25. On Day 28, all of them were killed and their right rear femurs and tibias were removed. Pigs fed diets with AKG tended to have higher average daily gain (ADG; P = 0.088), but their urinary-N levels and excretion of total N were 24.50% ( P = 0.012) and 23.67% ( P = 0.011) lower, respectively, when compared with corresponding values measured from the control group. However, their apparent N-digestibility and net protein utilization were increased by 2.43% ( P = 0.044) and 11.84% ( P = 0.002), respectively, over the control. Furthermore, supplemental AKG decreased faecal- and urinary-Ca levels by 29.56% ( P = 0.045) and 24.54% ( P = 0.001), respectively, while enhancing P-retention, apparent Ca-digestibility, and apparent P-digestibility by 27.10% ( P = 0.002), 14.51% ( P = 0.041), and 16.62% ( P = 0.010), respectively. The addition of AKG also elevated the concentrations of ash, P, and Ca ( P = 0.012, P = 0.002, and P = 0.004, respectively) in the femur samples, and increased bone density ( P = 0.003), but did not affect those parameters in the tibias. These results indicate that dietary supplementation with AKG can improve the utilization of N, Ca, and P; while effectively reducing N, Ca, and P emissions; and promoting N-, Ca-, and P-metabolism in growing pigs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenazines are a class of redox-active molecules produced by diverse bacteria and archaea. Many of the biological functions of phenazines, such as mediating signaling, iron acquisition, and redox homeostasis, derive from their redox activity. Although prior studies have focused on extracellular phenazine oxidation by oxygen and iron, here we report a search for reductants and catalysts of intracellular phenazine reduction in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Enzymatic assays in cell-free lysate, together with crude fractionation and chemical inhibition, indicate that P. aeruginosa contains multiple enzymes that catalyze the reduction of the endogenous phenazines pyocyanin and phenazine-1-carboxylic acid in both cytosolic and membrane fractions. We used chemical inhibitors to target general enzyme classes and found that an inhibitor of flavoproteins and heme-containing proteins, diphenyleneiodonium, effectively inhibited phenazine reduction in vitro, suggesting that most phenazine reduction derives from these enzymes. Using natively purified proteins, we demonstrate that the pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes directly catalyze phenazine reduction with pyruvate or α-ketoglutarate as electron donors. Both complexes transfer electrons to phenazines through the common subunit dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase, a flavoprotein encoded by the gene lpdG. Although we were unable to co-crystallize LpdG with an endogenous phenazine, we report its X-ray crystal structure in the apo-form (refined to 1.35 Å), bound to NAD+ (1.45 Å), and bound to NADH (1.79 Å). In contrast to the notion that phenazines support intracellular redox homeostasis by oxidizing NADH, our work suggests that phenazines may substitute for NAD+ in LpdG and other enzymes, achieving the same end by a different mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are the primary causative agents of urinary tract infections. Some UPEC isolates are able to infect renal proximal tubule cells, and can potentially cause pyelonephritis. We have previously shown that to fulfill their physiological roles renal proximal tubule cells accumulate high concentrations of α-ketoglutarate (KG) and that gene cluster c5032-c5039 contribute to anaerobic utilization of KG by UPEC str. CFT073, thereby promoting its in vivo fitness. Given the importance of utilizing KG for UPEC, this study is designed to investigate the roles of two transporters KgtP and C5038 in KG utilization, their transcriptional regulation, and their contributions to UPEC fitness in vivo. Our phylogenetic analyses support that kgtP is a widely conserved locus in commensal and pathogenic E. coli, while UPEC-associated c5038 was acquired through horizontal gene transfer. Global anaerobic transcriptional regulators Fumarate and nitrate reduction (FNR) and ArcA induced c5038 expression in anaerobiosis, and C5038 played a major role in anaerobic growth on KG. KgtP was required for aerobic growth on KG, and its expression was repressed by FNR and ArcA under anaerobic conditions. Analyses of FNR and ArcA binding sites and results of EMS assays suggest that FNR and ArcA likely inhibit kgtP expression through binding to the -35 region of kgtP promoter and occluding the occupancy of RNA polymerases. Gene c5038 can be specifically induced by KG, whereas the expression of kgtP does not respond to KG, yet can be stimulated during growth on glycerol. In addition, c5038 and kgtP expression were further shown to be controlled by different alternative sigma factors RpoN and RpoS, respectively. Furthermore, dual-strain competition assays in a murine model showed that c5038 mutant but not kgtP mutant was outcompeted by the wild-type strain during the colonization of murine bladders and kidneys, highlighting the importance of C5038 under in vivo conditions. Therefore, different transcriptional regulation led to distinct roles played by C5038 and KgtP in KG utilization and fitness in vivo. This study thus potentially expanded our understanding of UPEC pathobiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a bacterial strain of Achromobacter sp. LZ35, which was capable of utilizing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy acetic acid (MCPA) as the sole sources of carbon and energy for growth, was isolated from the soil in a disused pesticide factory in Suzhou, China. The optimal 2,4-D degradation by strain LZ35 occurred at 30 °C and pH 8.0 when the initial 2,4-D concentration was 200 mg L. Strain LZ35 harbored the conserved 2,4-D/alpha-ketoglutarate dioxygenase (96%) and 2,4-dichlorophenol hydroxylase (99%), and catabolized 2,4-D via the intermediate 2,4-dichlorophenol. The inoculation of 7.8 × 10 CFU g soil of strain LZ35 cells to 2,4-D-contaminated soil could efficiently remove over 75 and 90% of 100 and 50 mg L 2,4-D in 12 days and significantly released the phytotoxicity of maize caused by the 2,4-D residue. This is the first report of an Achromobacter sp. strain that was capable of mineralizing both 2,4-D and MCPA. This study provides us a promising candidate for its application in the bioremediation of 2,4-D- or MCPA-contaminated sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the enzymatic activity of isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) was defined decades ago, its functions in vivo are not yet fully understood. Cytosolic IDH1 converts isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate (α-KG), a key metabolite regulating nitrogen homeostasis in catabolic pathways. It was thought that IDH1 might enhance lipid biosynthesis in liver or adipose tissue by generating NADPH, but we show here that lipid contents are relatively unchanged in both IDH1-null mouse liver and IDH1-deficient HepG2 cells generated using the CRISPR-Cas9 system. Instead, we found that IDH1 is critical for liver amino acid (AA) utilization. Body weights of IDH1-null mice fed a high-protein diet (HPD) were abnormally low. After prolonged fasting, IDH1-null mice exhibited decreased blood glucose but elevated blood alanine and glycine compared with wildtype (WT) controls. Similarly, in IDH1-deficient HepG2 cells, glucose consumption was increased, but alanine utilization and levels of intracellular α-KG and glutamate were reduced. In IDH1-deficient primary hepatocytes, gluconeogenesis as well as production of ammonia and urea were decreased. In IDH1-deficient whole livers, expression levels of genes involved in AA metabolism were reduced, whereas those involved in gluconeogenesis were up-regulated. Thus, IDH1 is critical for AA utilization in vivo and its deficiency attenuates gluconeogenesis primarily by impairing α-KG–dependent transamination of glucogenic AAs such as alanine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of acute ingestion of a pre-workout dietary supplement (PWS) with and without p-synephrine (S) on perceptions of readiness to perform, cognitive function, exercise performance, and markers of safety. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, and counterbalanced manner; 25 healthy and recreationally active male and female participants ingested a flavored maltodextrin placebo (PLA), a PWS containing beta-alanine (3 g), creatine nitrate as a salt (2 g), arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (2 g), N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine (300 mg), caffeine (284 mg), Mucuna pruiriens extract standardized for 15% L-Dopa (15 mg), Vitamin C as Ascorbic Acid (500 mg), niacin (60 mg), folate as folic acid (50 mg), and Vitamin B12 as Methylcobalamin (70 mg) with 2 g of maltodextrin and flavoring; or, the PWS with Citrus aurantium (PWS + S) extract standardized for 30% p-synephrine (20 mg). Participants had heart rate (HR), blood pressure, resting energy expenditure (REE), 12-lead electrocardiograms (ECG), perceptions about readiness to perform, cognitive function (Stroop Color-Word test), bench and leg press performance (2 sets of 10 repetitions at 70% of 1RM and 1 set to failure), and Wingate anaerobic capacity (WAC) sprint performance determined as well as donated blood samples prior to and/or following exercise/supplementation. Data were analyzed by MANOVA with repeated measures as well as mean changes from baseline with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: No clinically significant differences were observed among treatments in HR, blood pressure, ECG, or general clinical blood panels. There was evidence that PWS and PWS + S ingestion promoted greater changes in REE responses. Participants reported higher perception of optimism about performance and vigor and energy with PWS and PWS + S ingestion and there was evidence that PWS and PWS + S improved changes in cognitive function scores from baseline to a greater degree than PLA after 1 or 2 h. However, the scores in the PWS + S treatment did not exceed PLA or PWS responses at any data point. No statistically significant differences were observed among treatments in total bench press lifting volume, leg press lifting volume or WAC sprint performance. Conclusions: Within the confines of this study, ingestion of PWS and/or PWS + S prior to exercise appears to be well-tolerated when consumed by young, healthy individuals. The primary effects appear to be to increase REE responses and improve perceptions about readiness to perform and cognitive function with limited to no effects on muscular endurance and WAC. The addition of 20 mg of p-synephrine to the PWS provided limited to no additive benefits. Trial registration: This trial (NCT02952014) was retrospectively registered on September 13th 2016. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary We previously identified mutations in Nardilysin ( dNrd1 ) in a forward genetic screen designed to isolate genes whose loss causes neurodegeneration in Drosophila photoreceptor neurons. Here we show that NRD1 is localized to mitochondria, where it recruits mitochondrial chaperones and assists in the folding of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (OGDH), a rate-limiting enzyme in the Krebs cycle. Loss of Nrd1 or Ogdh leads to an increase in α-ketoglutarate, a substrate for OGDH, which in turn leads to mTORC1 activation and a subsequent reduction in autophagy. Inhibition of mTOR activity by rapamycin or partially restoring autophagy delays neurodegeneration in dNrd1 mutant flies. In summary, this study reveals a novel role for NRD1 as a mitochondrial co-chaperone for OGDH and provides a mechanistic link between mitochondrial metabolic dysfunction, mTORC1 signaling, and impaired autophagy in neurodegeneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glycerol is a major by-product of the biodiesel industry and its transformation into valueadded products is an ongoing technological challenge. Here we report on the ability of the nutritionally-versatile Pseudomonas fluorescens to synthesize copious amount of α-ketoglutarate (KG) in a glycerol medium supplemented with manganese (Mn). The enhanced production of this keto-acid was mediated by the increased activities of isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDH)-(NAD)P dependent and aminotransaminases. At stationary phase of growth when the optimal quantity of KG was recorded, these enzymes exhibited maximal activities. Two isoforms of pyruvate carboxylase (PC) that were identified in the Mn-treated cells provided an effective route for the synthesis of oxaloacetate, a metabolite critical in the production of KG. Furthermore, the increased activities of phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK) ensured the efficacy of this KG-generating metabolic system by supplying pyruvate and ATP from the oxaloacetate synthesized by PC. Mn-exposed whole cells converted 90% of industrial glycerol into KG. This Mn-evoked metabolic network can be optimized into the economic transformation of glycerol into KG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]