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This article investigates the Romantic-era origins of Canada’s residential school system, which removed Aboriginal children from their homes in an official effort to sever familial and cultural ties and indoctrinate them into the hegemonic Euro-Canadian cultural order. The subject of a ground-breaking report recently published by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, this education system was not formally instituted until 1879; hence, most of its scholarship focuses on Canada’s post-Confederation period. This article attempts to expand our understanding of the residential school system by tracing its formal ideological foundations back to the 1820s when Upper Canada’s lieutenant governor, Sir Peregrine Maitland, and his chief adviser, the prominent Anglican cleric, educator, and amateur poet John Strachan – both of whom maintained strong transatlantic ties – first recommended Aboriginal children’s participation in immersive forms of colonial pedagogy. To contextualize this discussion,...

Endoscopic stenting has been shown to be effective in treating leaks after bariatric surgery. However, concerns remain regarding its long-term efficacy. The purpose of this study was to assess the evolution of endoscopic stenting and its efficacy over time, as well as the impact of stent fixation on migration rates and long-term outcomes. In addition, the effect of stenting on long-term weight loss and chronic reflux was also evaluated. A retrospective review was conducted including 37 patients from 2005 to 2017 who had undergone placement of stents after various bariatric procedures. Stents were placed endoscopically and, after 2012, secured with a figure-of-eight overstitch. Demographics, weight loss data, stent migration rates, incidence of revision surgery, chronic PPI use, and chronic symptoms of reflux data were obtained and analyzed. Thirty-seven patients from 2005 to 2017 required endoscopic stenting for leaks. 43.24% patients underwent sleeve gastrectomy, 40.54% gastric bypass, 5.40% patients underwent duodenal switch, and 10.81% underwent miscellaneous foregut procedures. The overall success rate was 94.59% (35 of 37 patients). The incidence of stent migration before 2012 was 41.18% versus 15% after 2012 (p = 0.136271). There were 2 treatment failures, one treated successfully with re-stenting and another other requiring revision surgery. Overall, the percent of excess body weight lost was 57.21% over an average of 21 months. 58.82% of patients used PPI chronically; however 41.17% noted actual symptoms of reflux. 16.22% (6 of 37) patients ultimately underwent revision surgery. Endoscopic stenting is a safe and effective treatment for leaks after bariatric surgery. While complications can include stent migration, newer stent technology and endoscopic overstitching techniques show promise in reducing the incidence of stent migration. Despite undergoing treatment with stenting, these patients had successful weight loss with relatively low rates of chronic PPI use and reflux symptoms.

This chapter discusses the songs of Bruce Cockburn,a singer-songwriter who, unlike contemporaries such as Joni Mitchell and Neil Young, chose not to move to the US early in his career, and who has therefore often been regarded by American audiences as distinctively Canadian. Although Cockburn has been influenced by American culture, he refused to tour the US during the early years of his solo career. His criticisms of American politics and culture became incendiary in the 1980s with the song ‘If I Had a Rocket Launcher’, which ironically brought him fame (and infamy) south of the Canadian border. Still, he was careful to distinguish between individual American soldiers and the leader who ultimately commands them. Hutchings describes Cockburn’s important differentiation between anti-Americanism and ‘principled opposition to American forms of political and economic imperialism, structures of power that many other nations, including Canada, have helped to support in a world of increasingly mobile global capital’. Hutchings particularly focuses on Cockburn’s concern for the environment, Indigenous peoples, and the ‘Third World’ (including songs that arose from the artist’s journey to Central America as an emissary for Oxfam). For Cockburn, it is not enough for singers merely to criticize the world’s problems; they must envision alternatives. Although he identifies with Canada, in his music and his public persona Cockburn advocates resistance to nationalist notions of tribe and state, calling for an ethic of care for, and openness to, the other.

I: Introduction When British writer Anna Jameson (1794–1860; figure 1) arrived in Toronto in 1836, she found herself in the thick of local society, for her husband, Robert Jameson, was Upper Canada’s attorney general. It is not surprising, then, that Mrs. Jameson quickly became acquainted with the British colony’s elite members, including fellow author Sir Francis Bond Head (1793–1875; figure 2), the recently appointed lieutenant governor. Readers of Jameson’s travelogue Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada (1838) will already be familiar with her passing references to Sir Francis, including her incisive critique of his paternalistic approach to indigenous governance policy. This essay revisits Jameson’s critique in light of a letter we recently discovered in the John Murray Archive at the National Library of Scotland. The letter, which Head wrote to his friend and publisher, John Murray, contains a rather scandalous allegation, for in it he accuses Jameson of stealing a skull from an indigenous gravesite – a circumstance that, if true, would complicate her avowed sympathy for North America’s First Peoples. In this essay we evaluate Head’s case against Jameson, weighing its plausibility and considering its implications. In the process, we hope to shed new light on the relationship between British Romanticism, colonialism, and contemporary ideas of indigenous culture and governance. Because Jameson and Head are minor authors, a few introductory words are in order before we proceed to our main argument. Although, as we demonstrate below, each was highly critical of the other, they shared a number of things in common, including a respectable level of popularity as travel writers. Before coming to Upper Canada, Jameson had penned such popular travelogues as The Diary of an Ennuyee (1826) and Visits and Sketches at Home and Abroad (1834), while Head had earned a degree of celebrity for his Rough Notes Taken During Some Rapid Journeys Across the Pampas and Among the Andes (1826) and Bubbles from the Brunnens of Nassau (1834). Having been born in the early years of the British Romantic period, both authors shared a penchant for nature and the picturesque, and each admired particular Romantic authors (for example, Jameson was an enthusiastic reader of Wordsworth, and Head enjoyed the poetry of Byron and Scott).

In his Remarks on Forest Scenery (1791), William Gilpin presents a model of history depicting the forest as humankind's first home: "That man was originally a forest-animal appears from every page of his early history. Trace the first accounts of any people, and you will find them the inhabitants of woods; if woods were to be found in the countries in which they lived" (1.271). And yet, if human societies were originally rooted in the woodlands, in the course of development they had not only forsaken those roots but actively destroyed them, for as populations increased, "man" began "to find [the forest] in his way. In one part, it occupied grounds fit for his plough; in another, for the pasturage of his domestic cattle; and in some parts, it afforded shelter for his enemies. He soon shewed the beasts, they were only tenants at will. He began amain to lay about him with his axe. The forest groaned. ... The fable was realized: man begged of the forest a handle to his hatchet; and when he had obtained the boon, he used it in felling the whole" (Gilpin 1.285-6). Under such circumstances, deforestation had already reached epidemical proportions in England by the mid 17th century, to the extent that forester John Evelyn, in Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees (1664), called for the enactment of civic legislation "for the preservation of our Woods" (108). As Evelyn noted, the preservation of wooded spaces was crucial for the future of English civilization, for it was from the forests that ships necessary to England's naval security and commercial prosperity were built. And yet, such preservation could also be dangerous to civilization, for, to return to Gilpin, the "enemies" often sought shelter among the trees. The association of such enemies with wooded environments is implicit in their identification as "savages." Derived from the Latin silvaticus, or woodland, "savage" literally means "forest person" (Rigby 215; Forbes 106), white the term "civilization," derived from civitas, means "city" (Volney 388). Dwelling in the forest--a word springing from the Latin foris, signifying "outside" (Rigby 215)--the woodland savage is thus the quintessential "other" to the civilian. Indeed, as C.F. Volney remarks, many of the earliest cities were nothing other than garrisons enclosed by walls "to protect [civilians] from plunderers without" (388). During the Romantic period, the peasants inhabiting British forests were often regarded as impediments to the civilization of an urbanizing agrarian nation (Harrison 104-9). For if, as William Marshall argued in 1801, unimproved common lands appeared "in the present state of civilization and science, as filthy blotches on the face of the country" (12), the inhabitants of such lands were also deeply offensive to the civilized gaze. Consider, for example, a remark J. Howlett offered in Enclosures (1787): "Seldom have I passed over an extensive waste, but I have been shocked with the sight of a proportionable number of half-naked, half-starved women and children, with pale meagre faces, peeping out of their miserable huts, or lazing and lounging about after a few paltry screaming geese, or scabby worthless sheep ..." (80). Worse than the offensive sight of uncouth people was the danger they ostensibly posed to civilized notions of law and order. A century earlier John Evelyn had noted, for example, that forest-dwellers "were not generally so civil, and reasonable, as might be wished; and therefore to design a solid Improvement in such places, his Majesty must assert his power, with a firme and high Resolution to Reduce these men to their due Obedience, and to a necessity of submitting to their own, and the publick utility" (112-13). Associating the promotion of domestic civility with related processes of social and geographic "improvement," Evelyn preached a secular gospel of internal colonialism that anticipated the modernizing discourses of Romantic-era theorists like William Marshall, who also argued that "some degree of compulsion appears to be necessary" when dealing with the inhabitants of England's unenclosed common lands (15). …

A prospective, cohort survey of 540 mid-adolescent students was conducted to identify personal, family and social correlates of alcohol use. A structured questionnaire recorded alcohol involvement, other substance use, perceived parental alcohol use and related factors, alcohol-related attitudes and beliefs, psychological well-being, social and peer behaviours, and school conduct problems. Participants drank on 17.5 days in the past 3 months; on a typical drinking day they consumed 4.7 units, with 28.5% reported drinking six or more units. More frequent drinking was independently correlated with being male, perceiving that parents encouraged drinking, drinking without parental knowledge, drinking to alter mood, buying alcoholic beverages, spending more time with friends who drink, perceiving social pressure to drink, and being excluded from school and truanting. Parental discouragement for alcohol was related to more frequent drinking in females and less frequent drinking in males. Drinking more intensively was associated with use of cannabis, parental encouragement to drink, spending more time with friends who drink, school exclusion, and being in trouble with teachers. These results highlight multidimensional correlates of drinking during mid-adolescence and underline the importance of addressing personal, family, peer, and school conduct factors in school-based alcohol education programmes.

Sir Francis Bond Head (1793-1875) was a respected man of letters and the LieutenantGovernor of Upper Canada from January 1836 until March 1838. During that time he proposed to remove local Anishinaabeg peoples from their traditional territories in presentday southern Ontario and relocate them to Manitoulin Island. This article explores how Head used Romantic notions that exalted primitivism and the “noble savage” to justify this plan. In so doing it clarifies the relationship between European Romantic theory and Canadian colonial practice in the early nineteenth century. A careful analysis of Head’s Indian policy reveals that many Romantic perceptions of Aboriginal peoples, while seemingly benevolent, were consistent with colonial policies that sought to alienate Aboriginal peoples from their lands and to segregate them from contact with European settler societies. Sir Francis Bond Head (1793-1875) etait un litterateur respecte et le lieutenant-gouverneur du Haut-Canada de janvier 1836 jusqu’a mars 1838. Pendant cette periode, il proposa de faire demenager les peuples Anishinaabeg locaux de leurs territoires traditionnels dans ce qui constitue maintenant le Sud de l’Ontario pour les installer sur l’ile Manitoulin. Le present article traite de la facon dont Sir Head s’est inspire de notions romantiques du primitivisme et du « bon sauvage » pour justifier ce plan. Ceci permet de mieux expliquer les liens qui existaient entre la theorie europeenne romantique et les pratiques coloniales canadiennes au debut du XIX e siecle. Une analyse soignee de la politique autochtone de Sir Head revele que plusieurs perceptions romantiques des peuples autochtones, qui semblaient a premiere vue bienveillantes, se conformaient a des politiques coloniales qui voulaient eloigner les peuples autochtones de leurs terres et empecher tout rapport avec les societes pionnieres europeennes.

I. GENERIC CONTEXTS In Thomas Campbell’s short poem ‘The Last Man’ (1823), published three years before Mary Shelley’s novel of the same title, we witness a significant conjunction of Christian prophecy and millenarian pastoral. Selfrighteously defiant in the face of his own impending demise, Campbell’s narrator-protagonist stands ‘prophet-like’, the last remaining human witness of the earthly apocalypse. According to a contemporary reviewer, Campbell’s Last Man behaves in a manner entirely worthy of respect and emulation, embodying indeed the very ‘spirit of religion’. To a certain extent, the poem was understood to merit such praise because, following orthodoxy, it situates a restored Edenic pastoral not on the materially corrupt Earth but in a spiritually redeemed millennium or heavenly afterlife. As Campbell’s narrator piously explains

Terence Allan Hoagwood, From Song to Print: Romantic Pseudo-Songs (Palgrave Macmillan 2010) 196 $84.00 Focusing on the "typographical simulation of songs" and the role Romantic poets played in the "industrializing of music and the commodification of those industrial products" (xi), Terence Alan Hoagwood's From Song to Print: Romantic Pseudo-Songs builds upon insights articulated by such scholars as William Laffan, Sean Shesgreen, and Dave Harker. In a series of finely nuanced arguments, the book documents the Romantics' use of various poetical and commercial sleights of hand to exploit their readers' love of song, showing how the resultant "pseudo-songs" sometimes self-reflexively "make a theme of their own simulative status" (xii). Chapter 1 provides an overview of the pseudo-song genre, beginning with a commentary on Psalms and psalmic imitation in the writings of John Milton, Isaac Watts, Joel Barlow and others, before discussing the ways in which pastoral poets such as Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, and Spenser used "the language of oral song as a metaphor for written poetry" (2). The chapter identifies two types of Romantic pseudo-song: those poems "that ... are sold as if they were songs when they are entirely scriptorial or typographical objects; and those that refer to music and use rhetorical resources to conjure imaginary mu sical effects, without pretending to be, really, music" (4-5). Subsequently, the chapter examines musical references in a selection of Romantic poems, including Shelley's "Music, when soft voices die," The Revolt of Islam, and Prometheus Unbound; Blake's "Introduction" to Songs of Innocence; Felicia Hemans's "A Spanish Lady"; several of Keats's odes and Clare's pastorals; and some miscellaneous poems by Letitia Elizabeth Landon. These close readings helpfully set the stage for the more focused discussions of individual authors and texts that follow. Chapter 2 demonstrates how Sir Walter Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border engages "the paradox of using writing as a means of ostensibly cherishing and preserving orality while replacing it" (24). To illustrate this process, Hoagwood first considers Scott's primitivist claim that Scottish poetry was inseparable from song prior to "the advent of literacy and ... the widespread adoption of the English language in Scotland" (27). Just as James Macpherson's Ossian epics and Thomas Percy's Reliques exploited their audience's desire to recapture the poetic glories of Scotland's "savage" past, so Scott invoked the popular image of the poet as a bard in order to exploit the same sense of nationalistic "folkloric nostalgia" (30). In a series of incisive close readings of Scott's poems and their accompanying prose commentaries, Hoagwood reveals "a story of increasing fictitiousness: narratives of supposedly historical fact are succeeded by supposedly authentic relics of a superstitious culture" followed by "admittedly faux ballads, referring to neither historical realities nor historical origins" (30-31). Linking this fictitiousness to contemporary British politics, he demonstrates how the themes in Minstrelsy build upon conservative principles set forth in Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. The chapter concludes by showing how Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel and The Lady of the Lake achieved commercial success by self-consciously highlighting the same themes of authenticity and fictitiousness that had previously made the Minstrelsy such a popular literary commodity. In Chapter 3, Hoagwood focuses a perceptive critical eye on Sydney Owenson's The Lay of an Irish Harp. Although this work seems to espouse Irish nationalism, From Song to Print endorses the view that Owenson's "literary ambition and appeal were much more Anglo than Irish" (45). To illustrate, Hoagwood examines Owenson's role in marketing her poetry, which included "what would now be called commercial tie-ins and product placements," showing how the costumes she wore and the green harp she played at English aristocratic revelries entailed a concerted "commodification of Irishness" (48-9). …

(1998). Alterity in the discourses of romanticism. European Romantic Review: Vol. 9, Romanticism and Its Others, pp. 149-160.

Since the publication of Jonathan Bate’s Romantic Ecology in 1991, scholars have increasingly sought to reframe British Romanticism in light of environmental history, creating in the process the field of inquiry known as ‘Green Romanticism’ or ‘Romantic Ecology’. Exploring trends in this field,1 I have developed an undergraduate seminar at the University of Northern British Columbia that encourages students to consider, from an ecocritical perspective, Romanticera responses to such topics as Enlightenment science and natural history, urbanisation and industrialisation, conservation, environmental ethics and animal welfare. During our 13-week semester, the class addresses a number of overarching questions: does Romanticism provide an ethical alternative to traditional anthropocentric concepts of nature, or is the literature’s emphasis upon imagination itself thoroughly human-centred? How do the Romantics’ generic experiments inform their responses to nature? What are the environmental implications of aesthetic categories like the sublime, the beautiful and the picturesque? How do Romantic concepts of nature engage with hegemonic models of gender, race and class? By asking such questions, I aim to help my students appreciate Romanticism’s contributions to environmental history and to understand some of the ways in which Romantic thought continues to inform modern-day environmentalist theory and practice.

With a few notable exceptions, modern-day scholars have agreed that William Blake was an anti-empiricist who rejected the material world of nature in favor of spiritualized abstractions like “imagination” and “eternity.” But this implicitly dualistic reading of the Blakean universe is difficult to reconcile with the poet’s celebrated tendency to denounce oppositional models of the relationship between body and soul. Moreover, it does not adequately account for Blake’s exuberant celebration of the naked human form in its pursuit of sensual pleasure and “The lineaments of Gratified Desire.” The very idea that Blake regarded the physical world of nature as “no more than the Mundane Shell or Vegetative Universe that was the vesture of Satan” (Ackroyd 328) raises some serious questions. How could Blake celebrate human sensual experience while at the same time denouncing the material contexts in which sensuality is expressed and explored? If the body is indeed a “portion of Soul,” as Blake claims in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (4; E34), then its pleasure-seeking physical impulses presumably have a spiritual basis. When in The Four Zoas Blake asks “where are human feet for Lo our eyes are in the heavens” (FZ Night 9, 122.25; E391), his question gestures toward the potential perils of a dualistic distinction between spirit and materiality, which threatens to devalue and even lose sight of the body and its environment, the physical Earth upon which the body stands.

Although Blake combined the “sister arts” of poetry, painting, and music in much of his early illuminated work, scholars have (with a few exceptions) rarely considered the musical aspect of his multi-media practice in detail. This tendency to “forget” about Blake’s musical artistry is entirely understandable, because the melodies that Blake wrote for many of his early poems did not survive his death in 1827. Building upon B. H. Fairchild’s groundbreaking work in Such Holy Song (1980), this multi-media essay examines Blake’s musical practice in relation to the poetry and designs of Songs of Innocence and of Experience. Beginning with a biographical discussion of Blake’s musicianship, the essay considers the role music played as an integral and holistic aspect of Blake’s “composite art.” Subsequently, the essay addresses some of the interpretive challenges facing modern composers who attempt to set Blake’s poetry to music; and it explores some of the ways in which music can inform modern pedagogy of the Songs. In an appendix, the essay places Blake’s verbal and visual media into a musical context by providing access to relevant MP3 music files taken from Kevin Hutchings’ CD Songs of William Blake (2007).

This article considers the theory and practice of ecological literary criticism, or “ecocriticism,” in British Romantic studies. Also known as “Romantic ecology” or “green Romanticism,” Romantic ecocriticism examines the ways in which Romantic writers and thinkers participated in and responded to the history of ecological science, environmental ethics, and environmentalist activism. The article begins by offering a general introduction to ecocriticism and its Romantic contexts. Subsequently, in a series of subtitled sections, it investigates the following topics: contemporary scientific discourses on nature; Romantic aesthetics and preservationist practices; Romantic naturalism and “deep ecology”; ecofeminist philosophy and Romantic gender politics; Romanticism and animal welfare; and the vexed relationship between Romantic “ecopoetics” and the politics of nature. The article concludes by examining some of the latest innovations in Romantic ecocriticism, including questions and problems associated with urban ecology, the politics of colonialism, and the concept of nature itself.