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Astrocytes communicate with synapses by means of intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)) elevations, but local calcium dynamics in astrocytic processes have never been thoroughly investigated. By taking advantage of high-resolution two-photon microscopy, we identify the characteristics of local astrocyte calcium activity in the adult mouse hippocampus. Astrocytic processes showed intense activity, triggered by physiological transmission at neighboring synapses. They encoded synchronous synaptic events generated by sparse action potentials into robust regional (∼12 μm) [Ca(2+)](i) elevations. Unexpectedly, they also sensed spontaneous synaptic events, producing highly confined (∼4 μm), fast (millisecond-scale) miniature Ca(2+) responses. This Ca(2+) activity in astrocytic processes is generated through GTP- and inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent signaling and is relevant for basal synaptic function. Thus, buffering astrocyte [Ca(2+)](i) or blocking a receptor mediating local astrocyte Ca(2+) signals decreased synaptic transmission reliability in minimal stimulation experiments. These data provide direct evidence that astrocytes are integrated in local synaptic functioning in adult brain.

A major challenge in neuroscience is relating neuronal activity to animal behavior. In olfaction limited techniques are available for these correlation studies in freely moving animals. To solve this problem, we developed an olfactory behavioral assay in head-restrained mice where we can monitor behavioral responses with high temporal precision. Mice were trained on a go/no-go operant conditioning paradigm to discriminate simple monomolecular odorants, as well as complex odorants such as binary mixtures of monomolecular odorants or natural odorants. Mice learned to discriminate both simple and complex odors in a few hundred trials with high accuracy. We then compared the discrimination performance of head-restrained mice to the performance observed in freely moving mice. Discrimination accuracies were comparable in both behavioral paradigms. In addition, discrimination times were measured while the animals performed well. In both tasks, mice discriminated simple odors in a few hundred milliseconds and took additional time to discriminate the complex mixtures. In conclusion, mice showed similar and efficient discrimination behavior while head-restrained compared with freely moving mice. Therefore, the head-restrained paradigm offers a relevant approach to monitor neuronal activity while animals are actively engaged in olfactory discrimination behaviors.

The release of transmitters from glia influences synaptic functions. The modalities and physiological functions of glial release are poorly understood. Here we show that glutamate exocytosis from astrocytes of the rat hippocampal dentate molecular layer enhances synaptic strength at excitatory synapses between perforant path afferents and granule cells. The effect is mediated by ifenprodil-sensitive NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors and involves an increase of transmitter release at the synapse. Correspondingly, we identify NMDA receptor 2B subunits on the extrasynaptic portion of excitatory nerve terminals. The receptor distribution is spatially related to glutamate-containing synaptic-like microvesicles in the apposed astrocytic processes. This glial regulatory pathway is endogenously activated by neuronal activity-dependent stimulation of purinergic P2Y1 receptors on the astrocytes. Thus, we provide the first combined functional and ultrastructural evidence for a physiological control of synaptic activity via exocytosis of glutamate from astrocytes.

The supraoptic nucleus receives an abundant gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic input which is inhibited by activation of various presynaptic metabotropic receptors. We here analysed the subtypes of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels intervening in the control of transmitter release at these synapses. To address this issue, we tested various specific inhibitors of Ca2+ channels on evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). Blocking N- and P-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels with 1 micromomega-conotoxin-GVIA and 20 nmomega-agatoxin-IVA, respectively, dramatically reduced IPSC amplitude. Q- and L-type Ca2+ channels also contributed to GABAergic transmission, although to a lesser extent, as revealed by applications of 200 nmomega-agatoxin-IVA and of the dihydropyridines nifedipine (10 microm) and nimodipine (10 microm). Evoked IPSCs were insensitive to SNX-482 (300 nm), a blocker of some R-type Ca2+ channels. Analysis of selective blockade by the various antagonists suggested that multiple types of Ca2+ channels synergistically interact to trigger exocytosis at some individual GABA release sites. We next investigated whether inhibition of GABA release in response to the activation of metabotropic glutamate, GABA and adenosine receptors involved the modulation of these presynaptic Ca2+ channels. This was not the case, as the inhibitory actions of selective agonists of these receptors were unaffected by the presence of the different Ca2+ channel antagonists. This finding suggests that these metabotropic receptors modulate GABAergic transmission through a different mechanism, downstream of Ca2+ entry in the terminals, or upstream through the activation of K+ channels.

In sensory systems, peripheral organs convey sensory inputs to relay networks where information is shaped by local microcircuits before being transmitted to cortical areas. In the olfactory system, odorants evoke specific patterns of sensory neuron activity which are transmitted to output neurons in olfactory bulb glomeruli. How sensory information is transferred and shaped at this level remains still unclear. Here we employ mouse genetics, 2-photon microscopy, electrophysiology and optogenetics, to identify a novel population of glutamatergic neurons (VGLUT3+) in the glomerular layer of the adult mouse olfactory bulb as well as several of their synaptic targets. Both peripheral and serotoninergic inputs control VGLUT3+ neurons firing. Furthermore, we show that VGLUT3+ neurons photostimulation in vivo strongly suppresses both spontaneous and odor-evoked firing of bulbar output neurons. In conclusion, we identify and characterize here a microcircuit controlling the transfer of sensory information at an early stage of the olfactory pathway.