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Western Australian rangeland goats were surveyed for faecal carriage of Salmonella enterica and Campylobacter spp. Faecal samples were collected from 125 goats on four occasions. The first sample was collected immediately upon arrival at a commercial goat depot (feedlot). Subsequent samples were collected at one month intervals thereafter. Frequency of detection and faecal carriage intensity were determined using qPCR targeting the S. enterica outer membrane protein (ompF) and Campylobacter spp. purine biosynthesis gene (purA). Salmonella enterica were identified in 40/500 of faecal samples, with S. enterica faecal carriage detected in 30% (38/125) goats over the duration of the study. Campylobacter spp. were identified in 12/500 of samples, with Campylobacter spp. detected in 10% (12/125) goats over duration of the study. Frequency of detection was highest at the first sample collection for both S. enterica (26%) and Campylobacter spp. (8%). Repeat detection of Salmonella was observed for only a single goat (0.8%). Salmonella qPCR positive samples were characterised at ompF and invA genes as S. enterica. Further characterisation at STM2755 and STM4497 genes confirmed the isolates were S. enterica serovar Typhimurium. Characterization at the 16S rRNA and hippuricase (hipO) genes revealed all Campylobacter spp. positive samples were C. jejuni. This study demonstrates that qPCR can be used for rapid identification of faecal carriage in goat faecal samples and showed evidence of carriage of zoonotic S. Typhimurium and C. jejuni by captured rangeland goats. The findings have implications for management of goats at abattoirs and in confined feeding facilities.

Faecal shedding of Eimeria by captured rangeland goats (Capra hircus) was investigated using a longitudinal observational study. Faecal samples were collected from 125 male goats on four occasions. The first sampling occurred following capture and transport, immediately after arrival at a commercial goat depot (feedlot) in Western Australia, with subsequent 3 sample collections occurring at one month intervals thereafter. Goats were composite breed and aged approximately 9–12 months on arrival at the feedlot. Prevalence and shedding intensity (faecal oocyst concentration) for Eimeria were determined using qPCR. Species were identified from individual oocysts (isolated using micromanipulation) using molecular analysis at two loci, specifically 18S rRNA and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase gene (COI), and confirmed by microscopy. Longitudinal prevalence (animals positive at least once) for Eimeria spp. by qPCR was 90.4%, with 60% goats shedding Eimeria spp. on more than one occasion. Point prevalence (prevalence at a single sampling occasion) ranged from 2.4% (fourth sampling) to 70.4% (second sampling). Three species were identified at the 18S rRNA locus and confirmed by microscopy: E. christenseni (longitudinal prevalence for single infection 34.4%), E. hirci (17.6%) and E. arloingi (8.8%) over the four sample collections. Mixed infections were identified in 56.8% goats (longitudinal prevalence). 18S rRNA sequences from E. christenseni and E. hirci were 100% homologous with ovine E. ahsata and E. crandallis respectively, and E. arloingi was 100% similar to caprine E. arloingi. At the COI locus, E. christenseni, E. hirci and E. arloingi grouped separately, and were closely related to ovine E. ahsata, with genetic similarities of 96.5%, 92.6% and 91.4% respectively. This is the first report for molecular characteristics of caprine-derived Eimeria spp. using a combination of 18S rRNA and COI. Molecular techniques can be used to identify Eimeria spp. in goat faecal samples, specifically through characterization at 18S locus and other gene loci when used in parallel. Molecular techniques offer some advantages over microscopy for identification of Eimeria species, particularly with respect to precision.

A severe outbreak of diarrhea associated with poor growth was reported in ten newly weaned goat kids that originated from a research farm (Group A). Two of these kids underwent necropsy examination. Five goat kids of the same age maintained in the same pen showed no clinical signs (Group B). The clinical, gross pathological and histopathological features of the clinically sick animals were consistent with severe coccidiosis. Group A animals had significantly lower levels of serum vitamin B12 (

Uninucleated Entamoeba cysts measuring 7.3 × 7.7 μm were detected in faecal samples collected from wild Rangeland goats (Capra hircus) after arrival at a commercial goat depot near Geraldton, Western Australia at a prevalence of 6.4% (8/125). Sequences were obtained at the 18S rRNA (n = 8) and actin (n = 5) loci following PCR amplification. At the 18S locus, phylogenetic analysis grouped the isolates closest with an E. bovis isolate (FN666250) from a sheep from Sweden with 99% similarity. At the actin locus, no E. bovis sequences were available, and the isolates shared 94.0% genetic similarity with E. suis from a pig in Western Japan. This is the first report to describe the morphology and molecular characterisation of Entamoeba from Rangeland goats in Western Australia and the first study to produce actin sequences from E. bovis-like Entamoeba sp.

BACKGROUND Paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (PCH) is a rare form of autoimmune hemolytic anemia caused by a biphasic (Donath-Landsteiner [DL]) immunoglobulin G autoantibody. Estimates of disease frequency after syphilis are lacking and the diagnostic yield of testing for PCH is uncertain. The objectives of this study were: 1) to describe DL testing practices in Canada, 2) to determine how often a biphasic RBC antibody is detected in adults and children, and 3) to evaluate inter-rater reliability of interpretations of positive DL test results in adults. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS We performed a national survey of reference laboratories, chart review of all test-positive cases, and independent panel adjudication. RESULTS Of 18 reference laboratories invited, 14 participated in the survey. In a representative year, 52 DL tests were requested across 14 centers, a region that serves more than 60% of Canada's population. In 124 cumulative testing-years, three positive tests were reported in adults and 14 positive tests were reported in children. There was poor agreement on interpretation of the three positive test results in adults among a panel of four experts (Fleiss κ = −0.1852; standard error, 0.1309; 95% confidence interval, −0.4418 to 0.0715). At a large academic center, 34 samples from 27 patients were sent for DL testing from 2006 to 2013 with 97% (33/34) reported as negative, inconclusive, or unacceptable samples. CONCLUSION Positive DL test results are rare and occur more commonly in children than adults. There was poor agreement among experts on the interpretation of a positive DL test in adults. These observations highlight the difficulties in establishing the diagnosis of PCH in adults and calls for scrutiny of current laboratory practice.

Cobalt (Co) is utilized by rumen microflora to produce vitamin B 12 . The aim of the present study was to determine whether feeding newly-weaned goats a diet containing low levels of Co results in impairment of neutrophil function, antibody production and/or lymphocyte proliferative responses. Forty, ten week old goats were fed a commercially-prepared concentrate (150 g/day) and Rhodesgrass hay ad libitum. This diet contained Co at n = 20). Goats in the treated group were supplemented with bi-monthly subcutaneous injections of 2 mg of hydroxycobalamin. Two months after weaning, the goats were immunized with keyhole limpet haemocyanin (KLH). A luminol-dependent chemiluminescence (CL) assay was employed to measure the oxidative respiratory burst of neutrophils during phagocytosis of zymosan A. The lymphocyte proliferative response to phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) and pokeweed mitogen (PWM) was assessed. The controls goats demonstrated a significantly lower antibody (IgG) response to KLH compared with the Co-supplemented goats that was apparent 1 week post immunization and was maintained for the 8 week observation period. Neutrophils from the Co-restricted group demonstrated significantly lower CL responses to opsonized zymosan A. Lymphocytes from the control and treated goats did not differ in their mitogenic responses to PHA and PWM. These results demonstrate that goats fed a diet low in Co exhibited impaired antibody and phagocytic responses.

The conventional well stimulation treatments have been used in the oil and gas wells for long time to remove formation damage or skin in order to enhance the well production and be able to achieve economic rates. Wireline Applied Stimulation Pulsing (WASP®) is a prominent new technology that is gaining more grounds in the well stimulation for oil producer and water injector wells. WASP® is an electro-hydraulic technology that generates repeatable, high power hydraulic pressure pulses downhole over the entire desired interval. The repeated pulsing stimulates the near wellbore area, breaks up scale and causing tensile failures in formation rock, thus creating mini fractures/fissures for new flow paths and removing formation damage or skin caused by scale, fines etc. that were blocking perforations, slotted liners, sand screens or gravel packs, resulting in improved inflow. Petrogas Exploration and Development recently conducted a WASP® campaign trial that is the first application in the middle east in four vertical wells in the south of Oman oil fields. The wells were Well-A, Well-B, Well-C and Well-D. The vertical wells were completed on the Gharif and Al Khlata sandstone oil reservoirs, which contain relatively medium oil with a viscosity range of 44-239 cP. All the pay zones were perforated, except for Well-B which was completed with gravel pack. The wells were completed with artificial lift including PCP pumps and beam pumps with polish rod strings. It was understood that the poor/low production performance of the candidate wells was due to the high skin, caused by the damaged gravel pack and plugged perforations. The WASP® tool specifications that was run for the treatments of the wells were 2.750" in diameter, and the length was approximately 11.6 m. The conveyance was on electrical wireline cable by using a standard logging truck. The results of the WASP® treatments jobs have shown mixed results but generally Well-A/B, Well-C and Well-D showed improvement in well performance and consequently in the oil gains. In fact, in Well-C in Aseel field had the highest production rate increased by more than threefold - a remarkable improvement. The other wells are still in the monitoring stage. The operation performance of WASP® treatments went smoothly without any operational issues or lost time in all the jobs. WASP® technology demonstrated that it is an attractive alternative method to the conventional well stimulation methods that involve the use of hydraulic fracturing and injection of acid, solvents and deimulsifiers. These conventional well stimulation methods have limitations in the treatment of the pay zone and operationally intensive. WASP® technology is proven to be more effective, safe (HSE compliant), less time consuming and thus cost effective. Petrogas is now considering applying the WASP® technology to the water injectors.

This study investigated faecal carriage and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Salmonella enterica recovered from rangeland goats. Faecal samples (n = 400) were collected at slaughter from four consignments of goats (n = 100 samples per consignment), each from one of four localities in Western Australia. Carriage of Salmonella spp. was detected in 106 samples (26.5%; 95% CI 22.4–31.0%). The rate of faecal carriage for each consignment ranged between 23–30%. PCR assays targeting the STM2755 and STM4497 genes revealed 84.9% (90/106) of the isolates were of serovar Typhimurium. Salmonella Chester (11/106, 10.4%) and S. Saintpaul (5/106, 4.7%) were characterised at invA and ompF genes. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing demonstrated that 84.0% of isolates were susceptible to all tested (n = 13) antimicrobials. Resistance was identified to azithromycin (14.2%), tetracycline (10.4%), ampicillin (5.7%), amoxicillin–clavulanate and cefoxitin (3.8%), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (1.9%), gentamicin and streptomycin (0.9%). No isolate was resistant to four or more antimicrobials, or to critically important antimicrobials such as fluoroquinolones and extended spectrum cephalosporins. This is the first study reporting AMR in Salmonella isolates from Australian rangeland goats. The rate of detection of AMR was very low, some resistance to low-importance drugs was present in the Salmonella population, despite the absence of active selection pressure.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are common parasites of ruminant livestock worldwide. These parasites are associated with diarrhoea outbreaks in young goats (pre-weaning), but the impacts on health and productivity for older goats (post-weaning) are not well understood. Here we show Cryptosporidium faecal shedding is associated with reduced growth and diarrhoea in goats aged approximately 9-15 months. Goats were sampled four times at one-month intervals. Faecal shedding for a range of pathogens were determined using quantitative PCR and sequencing (Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Eimeria, Salmonella, Campylobacter), and microscopy (trichostrongylid nematode worm egg count and Entamoeba). Cryptosporidium faecal shedding was associated with 1.5 kg lower growth for the one-month period following sampling. Specifically, C. xiaoi was associated with 1.9 kg lower growth in the following month. This is the first report of production impacts associated with C. xiaoi in ruminants older than 3 months of age. Cryptosporidium shedding was associated with an over 4-fold increase in risk of diarrhoea, with C. parvum associated with 10-fold and C. ubiquitum associated with 16-fold increase in risk of diarrhoea. Notably, C. xiaoi shedding was not associated with increased risk of diarrhoea. Giardia shedding was associated with looser faecal consistency, but not diarrhoea. Higher Eimeria oocyst counts were weakly associated with lower live weight, poorer body condition and looser faecal consistency. Shedding of other enteric pathogens were not associated with impacts on live weight, growth or diarrhoea risk. This study challenges the two notions that Cryptosporidium infections only impact health and productivity of goats during the pre-weaning period, and that Cryptosporidium (and specifically C. xiaoi) infections in the absence of diarrhoea are asymptomatic. Recognising the potential for impacts of Cryptosporidium infection on growth rates in the absence of diarrhoea will support improved design for experiments testing impacts of Cryptosporidium on ruminant health and production. Improved understanding of the role of protozoan infections on animal health has implications for the management of goats in order to reduce adverse impacts on farm profitability, animal welfare and public health risk.

A new species, Isospora streperae n. sp., (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is described from a single grey currawong bird (Strepera versicolour) (subspecies S. v. plumbea) in Western Australia. Sporulated oocysts (n = 32) are spherical to subspherical, with smooth colourless bilayered oocyst wall, 1.0 μm thick (outer layer 0{dot operator}8 μm, inner 0.2 μm thick). Oocyst with a polar granule, an oocyst residuum and two spheroidal to subspheroidal sporocysts. Oocyst length, 23.8 (20.4-25.0) μm; oocyst width, 22.5 (20.0-24.6) μm; a shape index of 1.06, with Stieda, substieda bodies. Micropyle is absent. Sporocysts with compressed sporocyst residuum and four sporozoites. Sporocyst length, 14.4 (12.5-15.2) μm; sporocyst width, 11.2 (10.6-14.0) μm, sporocyst L/W ratio, 1.29. Necropsy of the bird identified haemorrhaging along the ileum and jejunum, which is where Isospora oocysts were also mostly detected. Molecular analysis was conducted at three loci; the 18S, 28S ribosomal RNA and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (COI) gene. At the 18S locus, I. streperae n. sp. exhibited 99.5% and 99.4% similarity respectively to an Isospora sp. (MS-2003) from a Southern cape sparrow (Passer melanurus melanurus) and Isospora dovati from a domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica). At the 28S locus, I. streperae n. sp. exhibited 96.9% similarity to an Isospora sp. (MS-2003) from a grosbeak starling (Scissirostrum dubium) and 95.8% similarity with the Isospora sp. (MS-2003) from a Southern cape sparrow. At the COI locus, I. streperae n. sp. exhibited 95.0% similarity to Isospora sp. from a yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) from the Czech Republic. Based on morphological and molecular data, this isolate is a new species of Isospora, which is named Isospora streperae n. sp. after its host, the grey currawong (Strepera versicolour plumbea).

Objectives: To assess the response rate and duration of response in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) receiving rituximab. Methods: We retrospectively analyzed 32 consecutive patients with chronic ITP who were treated in two tertiary centers in Oman. Response assessment was based on the American Society of Hematology criteria. Results: Nineteen patients (59%) had an initial response. However, six of the 19 patients lost their response leaving 13 patients with long-lasting remissions. The median age at diagnosis was 25 years (range 14–58). The median time from diagnosis to rituximab therapy was 21 months. The median follow-up after starting rituximab was 26 months. The overall cumulative response rate was 59% (complete response 44%, partial response 15%) and the median time to respond was 30 days with a response rate of 44% at four weeks. In all responders, the cumulative rate of loss of response was 32% with a median time to lose response of 54 months. Conclusions: The use of rituximab in ITP achieves high response rate and long remission duration. Our study was limited by the small sample size and further larger prospective studies are recommended.

Fragility hip fractures treated in a center in the Middle East were retrospectively studied for adequacy of osteoporosis management. Of the 318 patients treated, over 70% did not have a structured investigation and about 30% did not receive any therapeutic supplements. Our series showed a preventable 8.8% secondary fracture rate. To study the adequacy of evaluation and treatment of osteoporosis after fragility fractures of the hip. The study also attempts to estimate the prevalence of secondary fractures after the original injury. This is a retrospective evaluation of the electronic database to search all the admissions for fractures of the hip in patients over 50 years at a tertiary care Trauma and Orthopaedic center in the Sultanate of Oman. The study period was defined as October 2010 to December 2015. Their case records, BMD reports, and laboratory data were analyzed. Pharmacological interventions and the documented compliance with such therapy were also recorded. Over the study period, 318 fragility fractures of the hip were treated. Of these, 233 (73.3%) did not receive a DEXA scan and 94% did not have their vitamin D3 (vit D) tested. About 29.9% percent cases did not receive any nutritional supplement or therapeutic intervention though diagnosed as fragility fracture. Twenty-eight patients (8.8%) reported for secondary fractures of the hip. Of these, 86% was initiated on supplement after their index fracture though 78.6% had not had a BMD study. Less than 27% patients receive BMD test following fragility fracture of the hip and only 6% a vit D3 assay. Secondary fractures of the hip tend to occur in approximately 9% of the cases in Oman; this seems to occur equally in patients who have had as well as not had any calcium and vit D supplements after the index injury.

Faecal shedding of Cryptosporidium and Giardia by captured rangeland goats was investigated using a longitudinal study with four faecal samples collected from 125 male goats once monthly for four months, commencing immediately after capture and transport to a commercial goat depot (feedlot). Goats were composite breed and aged approximately 9-12months on arrival. Faecal samples were screened for Cryptosporidium and Giardia presence and concentration using quantitative PCR and sequencing at the 18S ribosomal RNA locus (Cryptosporidium), and glutamate dehydrogenase and β-giardin loci (Giardia). Longitudinal prevalence for Cryptosporidium was 27.2% (point prevalence range 3-14%) with 3 species identified: C. xiaoi (longitudinal prevalence 13.6%), C. ubiquitum (6.4%) and C. parvum (3.2%). Sub-typing at the gp60 locus identified C. ubiquitum XIIa, C. parvum IIaA17G2R1 and C. parvum IIaA17G4R1. This is the first report of the zoonotic C. parvum subtype IIaA17G4R1 in goats. The pattern of genotypes shed in faeces changed over the duration of study with C. ubiquitum identified only at the first and second samplings, and C. parvum identified only at the fourth sampling. Longitudinal prevalence for Giardia duodenalis was 29.6% (point prevalence range 4-12%) with all positives sub-typed as assemblage E. Only 2/125 goats were identified to be shedding Cryptosporidium or Giardia on more than one occasion. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium and Giardia genotypes in captured rangeland goats. Faecal shedding of zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp. and potentially zoonotic G.duodenalis has implications for food safety and effluent management. Keywords: Cryptosporidium; Giardia; Rangeland goats; zoonotic.

Polymorphonuclear leukoctyes (PMN) serve on the first line of the immunological defense of ruminants. However, despite the high morbidity and mortality of neonatal lambs to a wide range of infections there have been no definitive studies undertaken to ascertain whether there might be functional differences in PMN from neonatal lambs when compared to those from adult sheep. To determine whether there were differences in the oxidative respiratory burst of PMN, luminol-dependent chemiluminescence (CL) measurements were made of PMN from lambs at 1 week, 1, 2 and 3 months of age and at the same time from their respective dams. PMN isolated from lambs exhibited significantly lower levels of CL until 2 months of age. At 3 months of age the PMN produced levels of CL equal to that of their dams. As CL mirrors the ability of PMN to efficiently phagocytize and kill pathogens the present findings would suggest that PMN of neonatal lambs during the first 2 months are likely less capable of defending them from pathogenic organisms.

Seventy-three, 10-week-old, newly weaned Omani goats of three different breeds, namely Dhofari (D), Batinah (B) and Jebel Akhdar (JA) were randomly divided into a control (n=38) and a treated group (n=35) for an experimental period of 10 months. Goats in both groups were fed 150 g/day per head of a pelleted concentrate, based on body weight and their requirements and Rhodes grass hay ad libitum, containing 0.12 and 0.10 mg/kg DM cobalt, respectively. Goats in the treated group also received bi-monthly subcutaneous injections of 2000 microg hydroxycobalamin. In contrast to the treated goats, the control animals of all breeds experienced a severe decrease in their serum vitamin B(12) levels, developed pale mucous membranes, appeared scruffy and two breeds (D and B) had significantly lower weight gains from month 5. Untreated kids of all breeds had significant decreases in their red blood cell counts and erythrocyte indices after approximately four months. Controls developed low total serum protein levels whilst activities of alkaline phosphatase and aspartate aminotransferase significantly increased. Although it is widely assumed that goats are more resistant to cobalt deficiency than sheep this is apparently not true for Omani goats. Based on experimental data from previously reported studies and those from the present study it can be concluded that the reduction in weight gains in D and B goats is related to their lower digestibility coefficients for dry matter, crude protein and energy while the increase in alkaline phosphatase and aspartate aminotransferase are associated with developing hepatic lipidosis.

The effect of low levels of dietary cobalt and parenteral Vitamin B12 supplementation on live body weight and the body dimensions of three breeds of Omani intact male goats, namely Batina (14 goats), Dhofari (14 goats) and Jabal Al-Akdhar (14 goats). The animals were fed Rhodes grass hay and a commercial diet containing 0.10 and 0.12 mg/kg DM of cobalt, respectively, from week 9 (weaning age) to week 48. At weaning, the kids were divided into control and treated groups. At week 9, the kids in the treated group were injected subcutaneously with 2000 μg of hydroxocobalamin (Vitamin B12) and thereafter at 8-week intervals to week 48 of age. Serum Vitamin B12 levels and various measurements of live body dimensions were determined on week 10, and then at 4-week intervals until 48 weeks of age. Serum Vitamin B12 levels were significantly higher (P

Forty-one, 10-week-old newly weaned goats were randomly allocated into two groups, namely control (n=22) and treated (n=19). Kids in both groups were fed Rhodegrass hay ad libitum that contained < 0.1 mg/kg DM cobalt and 150 g/day of a commercially prepared ruminant concentrate that contained approximately 0.12 mg/kg DM cobalt. This diet provided the minimum daily requirement of cobalt as specified for sheep. The treated goats were supplemented with bi-monthly subcutaneous injections of 2000 microg of hydroxycobalamin. All goats were weighed and blood samples collected monthly for haematological, clinical biochemical and serum vitamin B12 analysis. After a 10-month experimental period the goats were slaughtered. The control animals exhibited significantly (P

Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) is a chronic debilitating disease of goats caused by a lentivirus responsible for economic losses as a result of a drop in milk production and weight loss. The objective of the study was to determine if indigenous goats from five different regions in the Sultanate of Oman exhibit serological evidence of exposure to CAEV using a competitive-inhibition ELISA technique. Blood samples were collected from slaughtered goats (N = 1,110) and from the National Serum Bank (n = 528). In total, 83 (5.1%) of screened samples were classed as seropositive. The results provide the first serological evidence for the presence of CAEV in Oman.

Twenty ten-week-old newly weaned male Batinah goats were randomly assigned to a control (n=10) and a treated (n=10) group and were fed a diet containing 0.1mg/kg DM cobalt (Co). Goats in the treated group received bi-monthly subcutaneous injections of 2000 microg of hydroxycobalamin. The phagocytic function of the polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) were tested using a luminol-dependent chemiluminescence assay with opsonized zymosan as the phagocytic target. One month after the onset of the experiment PMN from the control group exhibited a significantly (p0.05) lower CL response, which continued for the second month. The results of the present study demonstrated that low levels of dietary cobalt leads to an early impairment of phagocytic function. This may at least in part, be an explanation as to why at the field level in Oman young goats fed diets containing low levels of Co appear to be more susceptible to infections.

This paper describes the electronic government project in the state of Qatar known as Qatar Central Government Portal (Hukoomi e-Gov). It highlights the main online services that are offered to Qataris citizens and residents. The main objective of the e-Gov portal, as claimed by its project manager, is to achieve the highest performance in executing governmental transactions electronically, through streamlined business processes and integrated information technology solutions. Although this web portal offers an important range of online services, it lacks however, in information about the state of Qatar like schools and education, entertainment, tourism and monuments, banking, malls and shopping centers, hospitals and health care centers, etc. Thus, an informative web portal about the country is needed. It should be the main point of access to information about Qatar and complement its e-Gov portal, Hukoomi. New visitors and potential residents can then get the necessary information about the previous facilities through this informative portal. Many modern countries have developed their business and informative portals. We discuss in this work the design and characteristics of our proposed informative web portal about the state of Qatar and we propose a disambiguation algorithm to retrieve the main documents related to the user query.

Despite the camel’s long historical interaction with man there is only a limited number of studies available pertaining to the immunobiology of this species. This is unfortunate as the camel has evolved into an animal capable of not only surviving under extreme environmental conditions but also into one that is relatively resistant to a great number of infectious diseases. Accordingly, it is of interest to understand the various components operative in the camel immune system, as a potential basis of manipulating the immune response of other domesticated animals to respond to disease-causing agents in a similarly effective fashion. Recent research endeavors on the complement and phagocytic system, as well as the unique antibody types found in camelids that have seen an explosion of interest in recent times have been reviewed and their potential use as diagnostic and therapeutic tools highlighted.

Abstract 4675 Introduction: Rituximab has been used in the management of chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) with promising results. The risk of losing response, however, is yet to be determined with long term follow up. Method: We retrospectively analyzed 32 consecutive patients (20 females, 12 males) with ITP (including 6 patients with secondary ITP) treated with rituximab in two tertiary care hospitals in Oman between May 2006 and May 2011. Response criteria were based on the International Consensus report (Rodeghiero F et al. Blood 2009). Result: The median age at diagnosis was 25 years (range, 4 – 58). Clinical presentation ranged from mild echymosis to more severe central nervous system bleeding. Patients received a median of one line of therapy before rituximab (range, 1–4), including 3 patients who failed splenectomy. Patients received intravenous rituximab using 375 mg/m2 once weekly for 4 weeks. The median time from diagnosis to receiving rituximab was 21 months (range, 1– 177). Only one patient was positive for Hepatitis C virus, but no hepatitis B or HIV positive in this cohort. Anti nuclear antibody was positive in 34% (10/29) of patients. The median hemoglobin and platelet counts at diagnosis were 12 g/dl (range, 5–16) and 11×109/L (range, 1–60) respectively. The median follow up time after rituximab was 26 months (95% confidence interval: 11–40). The overall cumulative response rate was 59% (partial response of 15% and complete response of 44%). The median time to respond was 30 days (Standard error [SE] 49) with a response rate of 44% at 4 weeks (95% Confidence interval: 29–62%). The multivariable Cox model analysis (variables include: age at diagnosis, gender, number of previous therapies and primary vs. secondary) revealed none of the variables included to be statistically significant. The cumulative rate of loss of response was 32% (6/19) with a median time to lose response of 54 months (SE, 0.03). In patients who lost response, the median time to lose response was 17 months (SE, 14). Of the 6 patients who lost response, 4 received a second course of rituximab and all 4 achieved a full response. No major side effects to rituximab were reported during the follow up. Conclusion: Rituximab is an effective and a well tolerated second line therapy for ITP. The response to rituximab can be maintained for a long duration with a high rate of response after retreatment. None of the pretreatment variables studied carried a significant predictive value for response. The study was limited by the small sample size and further larger prospective studies are recommended. Disclosures: Off Label Use: Rituximab was used in our study as a second line for the management of chronic immune thrombocytopenia.