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Semi-transparent photovoltaic devices for building integrated applications have the potential to provide simultaneous power generation and natural light penetration. CuIn$_{1-x}$Ga$_x$Se$_2$ (CIGS) has been established as a mature technology for thin-film photovoltaics, however, its potential for Semi-Transparent Photovoltaics (STPV) is yet to be explored. In this paper, we present its carrier transport physics explaining the trend seen in recently published experiments. STPV requires deposition of films of only a few hundred nanometers to make them transparent and manifests several unique properties compared to a conventional thin-film solar cell. Our analysis shows that the short-circuit current, Jsc is dominated by carriers generated in the depletion region, making it nearly independent of bulk and back-surface recombination. The bulk recombination, which limits the open-circuit voltage Voc, appears to be higher than usual attributable to numerous grain boundaries. When the absorber layer is reduced below 500 nm, grain size reduces resulting in more grain boundaries and higher resistance. This produces an inverse relationship between series resistance and absorber thickness. We also present a thickness-dependent model of shunt resistance showing its impact in these ultra-thin devices. For various scenarios of bulk and interface recombinations, shunt and series resistances, AVT and composition of CuIn$_{1-x}$Ga$_x$Se$_2$, we project the efficiency limit which - for most practical cases - is found to be $\leq$10% for AVT $\geq$25%.

The bifacial gain of East-West vertical and South-facing optimally-tilted bifacial farms are well established. One wonders if bifacial gain (and the associated LCOE) may be further improved by tracking the sun. Tracking bifacial PV has advantages of improved temperature sensitivity, enhanced diffuse and albedo light collection, flattened energy-output, reduced soiling, etc. Monofacial tracking already provides many of these advantages, therefore the relative merits of bifacial tracking are not obvious. In this paper, we use a detailed illumination and temperature-dependent bifacial solar farm model to show that bifacial tracking PV delivers up to 45% energy gain when compared to fixed-tilt bifacial PV near the equator, and ~10% bifacial energy gain over tracking monofacial farm with an albedo of 0.5. An optimum pitch further improves the gain of a tracking bifacial farm. Our results will broaden the scope and understanding of bifacial technology by demonstrating global trends in energy gain for worldwide deployment., Comment: 12 pages, 12 figures, submitted in a journal

Bifacial solar panels are perceived to be the technology of choice for next generation solar farms for their increased energy yield at marginally increased cost. As the bifacial farms proliferate around the world, it is important to investigate the role of temperature-dependent energy-yield and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of bifacial solar farms relative to monofacial farms, stand-alone bifacial modules, and various competing bifacial technologies. In this work, we integrate irradiance and light collection models with experimentally validated, physics-based temperature-dependent efficiency models to compare the energy yield and LCOE reduction of various bifacial technologies across the world. We find that temperature-dependent efficiency changes the energy yield and LCOE by approximately -10 to 15%. Indeed, the results differ significantly depending on the location of the farm (which defines the illumination and ambient temperature), elevation of the module (increases incident energy), as well as the temperature-coefficients of various bifacial technologies. The analysis presented in this paper will allow us to realistically assess location-specific relative advantage and economic viability of the next generation bifacial solar farms., Comment: 13 pages, 12 figures, Applied Energy

The steady decrease in the levelized cost of solar energy (LCOE) has made it increasingly cost-competitive against fossil fuels. The cost reduction is supported by a combination of material, device, and system innovations. To this end, bifacial solar farms are expected to decrease LCOE further by increasing the energy yield; but given the rapid pace of design/manufacturing innovations, a cost-inclusive optimization of bifacial solar farms has not been reported. In our worldwide study, we use a fundamentally new approach to decouple energy yield from cost considerations by parameterizing the LCOE formula in terms of "land-cost" and "module cost" to show that an interplay of these parameters defines the optimum design of bifacial farms. For ground-mounted solar panels, we observe that the panels must be oriented horizontally and packed densely for locations with high "land-cost", whereas the panels should be optimally tilted for places with high "module-cost". Compared to a monofacial farm, the modules in an optimized bifacial farm must be tilted ~15-20 degrees higher and will reduce LCOE by ~8-10% in many locations of the world. The results in this paper will guide the deployment of LCOE-minimized ground-mounted tilted bifacial farms around the world., Comment: 13 pages (including appendix), 10 figures (main text)

The prospect of additional energy yield and improved reliability have increased commercial interest in bifacial solar modules. A number of recent publications have quantified the bifacial gain for several configurations. For example, a standalone, optimally-tilted bifacial panel placed over a flat ground (with 50% albedo) is expected to produce a bifacial energy gain of 30% (per module area). In contrast, for a panel array in a solar farm, self and mutual shading reduce the bifacial gain at the same tilt to 10-15% (per farm area). Bifacial gain is negligible for vertical arrays--although the configuration is of significant interest, since it can prevent soiling. Here, we calculate the bifacial gain of a solar farm where vertical arrays have been placed over sculpted/patterned ground. We conclude that vertical panels straddling (upward) triangle-shaped ground maximizes the energy output. For this optimum configuration, the bifacial gain can approach 50%, especially for regions with moderate to high cloudy conditions. The enhanced output, along with reduced soiling loss and lower cleaning cost of the ground sculpted vertical bifacial (GvBF) solar farm could be of significant technological interest, especially in regions such as the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), particularly susceptible to significant soiling losses., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures

Variability of the energy output throughout the day/night poses a major hurdle to the widespread adoption of photovoltaic systems. An integrated photovoltaic (PV) and electrochemical (EC)-storage system offers a solution, but the thermodynamic efficiency ({\eta}_sys) of the integrated system and the optimum configuration needed to realize the limit are known only for a few simple cases, derived though complex numerical simulation. In this paper, we show that a simple, conceptually-transparent, analytical formula can precisely describe the {\eta}_sys of a 'generalized' PV-EC integrated system. An M-cell module of N-junction bifacial tandem cells is illuminated under S-suns mounted over ground of albedo R. There are K-EC cells in series, each defined by their reaction potential, exchange current, and Tafel slope. We derive the optimum thermodynamic limit of {\eta}_sys(N,M,K,R,S) for all possible combinations of a PV-EC design. For a setup with optimal-(M,K) and large N, under 1-sun illumination and albedo = 0, the ultimate limit for {\eta}_sys ~ 52%. The analysis will unify the configuration-specific results published by diverse groups worldwide and define the opportunities for further progress towards the corresponding thermodynamic limit., Comment: 5 pages, 6 figures, Journal

There have been sustained interest in bifacial solar cell technology since 1980s, with prospects of 30-50% increase in the output power from a stand-alone single panel. Moreover, a vertical bifacial panel reduces dust accumulation and provides two output peaks during the day, with the second peak aligned to the peak electricity demand. Recent commercialization and anticipated growth of bifacial panel market have encouraged a closer scrutiny of the integrated power-output and economic viability of bifacial solar farms, where mutual shading will erode some of the anticipated energy gain associated with an isolated, single panel. Towards that goal, in this paper we focus on geography-specific optimizations of ground mounted vertical bifacial solar farms for the entire world. For local irradiance, we combine the measured meteorological data with the clear-sky model. In addition, we consider the detailed effects of direct, diffuse, and albedo light. We assume the panel is configured into sub-strings with bypass-diodes. Based on calculated light collection and panel output, we analyze the optimum farm design for maximum yearly output at any given location in the world. Our results predict that, regardless of the geographical location, a vertical bifacial farm will yield 10-20% more energy than a traditional monofacial farm for a practical row-spacing of 2m (1.2m high panels). With the prospect of additional 5-20% energy gain from reduced soiling and tilt optimization, bifacial solar farm do offer a viable technology option for large-scale solar energy generation., Comment: main-paper: 11 pages, 9 figures Supporting document: 5 pages, 4 figures

Bifacial tandem cells promise to reduce three fundamental losses (above-bandgap, below bandgap, and the uncollected light between panels) inherent in classical single junction PV systems. The successive filtering of light through the bandgap cascade, and requirement of current continuity make optimization of tandem cells difficult, accessible only to numerical solution through computer modeling. The challenge is even more complicated for bifacial design. In this paper, we use an elegantly simple Markov chain approach to show that the essential physics of optimization is intuitively obvious, and deeply insightful results can obtained analytically with a few lines of algebra. This powerful approach reproduces, as special cases, all the known results of traditional/bifacial tandem cells, and highlights the asymptotic efficiency gain of these technologies., Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures

As single junction thin-film technologies, both Si heterojunction (HIT) and Perovskite based solar cells promise high efficiencies at low cost. One expects that a tandem cell design with these cells connected in series will improve the efficiency further. Using a self-consistent numerical modeling of optical and transport characteristics, however, we find that a traditional series connected tandem design suffers from low Jsc due to band-gap mismatch and current matching constraints. It requires careful thickness optimization of Perovskite to achieve any noticeable efficiency gain. Specifically, a traditional tandem cell with state-of-the-art HIT (24%) and Perovskite (20%) sub-cells provides only a modest tandem efficiency of ~25%. Instead, we demonstrate that a bifacial HIT/Perovskite tandem design decouples the optoelectronic constraints and provides an innovative path for extraordinary efficiencies. In the bifacial configuration, the same state-of the-art sub-cells achieve a normalized output of 33%, exceeding the bifacial HIT performance at practical albedo reflections. Unlike the traditional design, this bifacial design is relatively insensitive to Perovskite thickness variations, which may translate to simpler manufacture and higher yield.

The Shockley-Queisser (S-Q) theory defines the thermodynamic upper limits for Jsc, Voc, FF, and efficiency of a solar cell. The classical calculation assumes an abrupt onset of absorption at the band-edge, perfect absorption for all energies above the bandgap, and absence of non-radiative recombination. These assumptions are never satisfied for any practical solar cell. In this paper, we explain how the S-Q limits are redefined in the presence of the non-ideal optical effects, and we provide closed-form analytical expressions for the new limits for Jsc, Voc, and FF. Remarkably, these new limits can be achieved to a very high degree, even with significantly imperfect materials., Comment: 5 pages, 6 figures, conference: 39th PVSC (2013)

A simple thermodynamic argument related to a (weakly absorbing) finite dielectric slab illuminated by sunlight- originally suggested by Yablonovich- leads to the conclusion that the absorption in a dielectric can at best be increased by a factor 4n2. Therefore, the absorption in these materials is always imperfect; the Shockley-Queisser limit can be achieved only asymptotically. In this paper, we make the connection between the degradation in efficiency and the Yablonovich limit explicit and re-derive the 4n2 limit by intuitive geometrical arguments based on Snell's law and elementary rules of probability. Remarkably, the re-derivation suggests strategies of breaking the traditional limit and improving PV efficiency by enhanced light absorption., Comment: 8 pages, 9 figures

Elementary physics of photovoltaic energy conversion in a two-level atomic PV is considered. We explain the conditions for which the Carnot efficiency is reached and how it can be exceeded! The loss mechanisms - thermalization, angle entropy, and below-bandgap transmission - explain the gap between Carnot efficiency and the Shockley-Queisser limit. Wide varieties of techniques developed to reduce these losses (e.g., solar concentrators, solar-thermal, tandem cells, etc.) are reinterpreted by using a two level model. Remarkably, the simple model appears to capture the essence of PV operation and reproduce the key results and important insights that are known to the experts through complex derivations., Comment: 7 pages, 6 figures