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Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the most important tick-transmitted arbovirus causing human disease in Europe, but information on its endemic occurrence varies between countries because of differences in surveillance systems. Objective data are necessary to ascertain the disease risk for vaccination recommendations and other public health interventions. In two independent, separately planned projects, we used real-time RT-PCR to detect TBE virus in questing ticks. In Poland, 32 sampling sites were selected in 10 administrative districts located in regions where sporadic TBE cases were reported. In Germany, 18 sampling sites were selected in two districts located in a region with high TBE incidence. Altogether, >16 000 ticks were tested by real-time RT-PCR, with no sample testing positive for TBEV. A systematic search for published studies on TBEV prevalence in ticks in Poland and Germany also suggested that testing large numbers of collected ticks could not consistently assure virus detection in known endemic foci. Although assignment of results to administrative regions is essential for TBE risk mapping, this was possible in only 10 (investigating 22 417 ticks) of 15 published studies (>50 000 ticks) identified. We conclude that the collection and screening of ticks by real-time RT-PCR cannot be recommended for assessment of human TBE risk. Alternative methods of environmental TBEV monitoring should be considered, such as serological monitoring of rodents or other wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: Ixodes ricinus is responsible for the spreading of medically important pathogens. Monitoring the level of tick infection in various areas is essential for determining the potential tick-born risk. This study aimed to detect Borrelia spp. and Rickettsia spp. in I. ricinus ticks collected in urban and protected areas both in Poland and the Czech Republic. (2) Methods: Ticks were collected by flagging in the years 2016-2017. Borrelia spp. was detected using nested PCR targeting the flaB gene and Rickettsia spp. using nested PCR targeting gltA . (3) Results: In total, DNA of Borrelia spp. was detected in 25.9% of samples. Ticks collected in Poland were more infected compared to the Czech Republic and ticks collected in protected areas were more infected with Borrelia spp. than ticks collected in urban areas. The RFLP analysis showed the occurrence of B. afzelii and B. garinii in both countries, and additionally B. valaisiana , B. burgdorferi s.s., and B. miyamotoi in Poland. Rickettsia spp. was detected in 17.4% of I. ricinus , with comparable infection level in both countries; however, regional differences were observed. (4) Conclusion: The regional differences in Borrelia spp. and Rickettsia spp. prevalence in I. ricinus indicate the complexity of factors influencing the level of infection and underline the need for adaptation public health surveillance strategies in each region.

The aim of this study was to determine the level of infection of Ixodes ricinus ticks with pathogens (Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasma spp.) collected from Lacerta agilis and Zootoca vivipara lizards in the urban areas of Wrocław (SW Poland). The study was carried out in July-August 2020. Lizards were caught by a noose attached to a pole or by bare hands, identified by species, and examined for the presence of ticks. Each lizard was then released at the site of capture. Ticks were removed with tweezers, identified by species using keys, and molecular tests were performed for the presence of pathogens. From 28 lizards (17 specimens of Z. vivipara and 11 specimens of L. agilis) a total of 445 ticks, including 321 larvae and 124 nymphs, identified as I. ricinus were collected. A larger number of ticks were obtained from L. agilis compared to Z. vivipara. Molecular tests for the presence of pathogens were performed on 445 specimens of I. ricinus. The nested PCR method for the fla gene allowed the detection of Borrelia spp. in 9.4% of ticks, and it was higher in ticks from L. agilis (12.0%) than from Z. vivipara (1.0%). The RFLP method showed the presence of three species, including two belonging to the B. burgdorferi s.l. complex (B. lusitaniae and B. afzelii), and B. miyamotoi. The overall level of infection of Rickettsia spp. was 19.3%, including 27.2% in ticks collected from Z. vivipara and 17.0% from L. agilis. Sequencing of randomly selected samples confirmed the presence of R. helvetica. DNA of Anaplasma spp. was detected only in one pool of larvae collected from L. agilis, and sample sequencing confirmed the presence of (A) phagocytophilum. The research results indicate the important role of lizards as hosts of ticks and their role in maintaining pathogens in the environment including urban agglomeration as evidenced by the first recorded presence of (B) miyamotoi and (A) phagocytophilum in I. ricinus ticks collected from L. agilis. However, confirmation of the role of sand lizards in maintaining (B) miyamotoi and A. phagocytophilum requires more studies and sampling of lizard tissue., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

This study investigates the prevalence of Rickettsia spp. in Ixodes ricinus tick populations in different forest habitat types (broadleaf forest, mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest, and coniferous forest) in south-western Poland. During the survey periods from April to June 2018 and 2019 a total of 494 I. ricinus ticks, including 374 nymphs, 60 females and 60 males, were tested for Rickettsia infections by nested PCR targeting the glt A gene. The overall infection rate was 42.3%; however, we observed statistically significant year-to-year variation. Infection rates varied between tick developmental stages and were significantly influenced by forest habitat type. As assessed by a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM), the highest infection rates were observed in mixed broadleaf and coniferous forests, while coniferous forests had a significant negative effect on infection prevalence. DNA sequencing of selected samples confirmed the predominance of Rickettsia helvetica (91.2%) and less frequent Rickettsia monacensis (8.8%). This study suggests that the forest habitat types can influence Rickettsia spp. infection in tick populations; however, a comprehensive understanding of all factors influencing the level of infection requires future study., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Authors.)

This article presents the current state of knowledge of mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) occurring in Poland. In comparison to the most recently published checklists (1999 and 2007), which listed 47 mosquito species, four species ( Aedes japonicus , Anopheles daciae , Anopheles hyrcanus , and Anopheles petragnani ) are added to the Polish fauna. Our new checklist of Polish mosquito fauna includes 51 species of mosquitoes from five genera: Aedes (30), Anopheles (8), Coquillettidia (1), Culiseta (7), and Culex (5). Aspects of the ecology and biology of the Polish mosquito fauna, with particular emphasis on newly recorded species, are discussed.

(1) Background: In addition to the microclimate, host availability, and tick microbiota, soil environmental microorganisms can affect tick populations. This study aimed to (1) determine the presence and diversity of entomopathogenic fungi (EF) in forests, where ticks are abundant, and (2) estimate the effectiveness of the isolated EF strains against Ixodes ricinus . (2) Methods: EF were isolated using the trap insect method from soil collected from tick sites. A bioassay was used to estimate the effectiveness of EF against ticks. (3) Results: The presence of EF was found in all tested forest habitat types. A total of 53 strains belonging to the genera Metarhizium , Beauveria , and Isaria were isolated. All the six strains subjected to the bioassay showed potential efficacy against both adult and nymphal stages of I. ricinus ; however, the strains differed in their effectiveness. The most effective isolate against I. ricinus was the soil environmental strain of Metarhizium anisopliae . (4) Conclusion: The study indicates that tick habitats can be the source of entomopathogenic fungi, which have a lethal effect on ticks, as demonstrated in preliminary laboratory tests with I. ricinus . However, for practical use, extensive field tests and further research on application methods and long-term effects are necessary to develop effective and sustainable tick management strategies.

(1) Background: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is the most important tick-borne viral disease in Eurasia, although effective vaccines are available. Caused by the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV, syn. Orthoflavivirus encephalitidis ), in Europe, it is transmitted by ticks like Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus . TBEV circulates in natural foci, making it endemic to specific regions, such as southern Germany and northeastern Poland. Our study aimed to identify new TBEV natural foci and genetically characterize strains in ticks in previously nonendemic areas in Eastern Germany and Western Poland. (2) Methods: Ticks were collected from vegetation in areas reported by TBE patients. After identification, ticks were tested for TBEV in pools of a maximum of 10 specimens using real-time RT-PCR. From the positive TBEV samples, E genes were sequenced. (3) Results: Among 8400 ticks from 19 sites, I. ricinus ( n = 4784; 56.9%) was predominant, followed by D. reticulatus ( n = 3506; 41.7%), Haemaphysalis concinna ( n = 108; 1.3%), and I. frontalis ( n = 2; <0.1%). TBEV was detected in 19 pools originating in six sites. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that TBEV strains from Germany and Poland clustered with other German strains, as well as those from Finland and Estonia. (4) Conclusions: Although there are still only a few cases are reported from these areas, people spending much time outdoors should consider TBE vaccination.

In Europe, ticks are particularly important vectors of pathogens known as tick-borne pathogens (TBP). TBP can influence hosts, including domestic animals and humans as well as ticks. This review focuses on interactions between hard ticks and medically and veterinary significant bacterial pathogens i.e. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Anaplasma spp, and Rickettsia spp. The interactions between ticks and bacteria include among others the impact on gene expression and tick behaviour. Infection with TBP may influence tick salivary proteins and midgut receptors. Infection with B. burgdorferi s.l. changes the bahaviour of the tick allowing them for longer questing and increased mobility, while A. phagocytophilum increases survive in low temperatures by upregulating the expression of antifreeze glycoprotein (IAFGP). Whereas Rickettsia spp. increases ticks attraction towards the 900 MHz electromagnetic field.

The ornate dog tick (Dermacentor reticulatus) shows a recently expanding geographic distribution. Knowledge on its intraspecific variability, population structure, rate of genetic diversity and divergence, including its evolution and geographic distribution, is crucial to understand its dispersal capacity. All such information would help to evaluate the potential risk of future spread of associated pathogens of medical and veterinary concern. A set of 865 D. reticulatus ticks was collected from 65 localities across 21 countries, from Portugal in the west to Kazakhstan and southern Russia in the east. Cluster analyses of 16 microsatellite loci were combined with nuclear (ITS2, 18S) and mitochondrial (12S, 16S, COI) sequence data to uncover the ticks' population structures and geographical patterns. Approximate Bayesian computation was applied to model evolutionary relationships among the found clusters. Low variability and a weak phylogenetic signal showing an east-west cline were detected both for mitochondrial and nuclear sequence markers. Microsatellite analyses revealed three genetic clusters, where the eastern and western cluster gradient was supplemented by a third, northern cluster. Alternative scenarios could explain such a tripartite population structure by independent formation of clusters in separate refugia, limited gene flow connected with isolation by distance causing a "bipolar pattern", and the northern cluster deriving from admixture between the eastern and western populations. The best supported demographic scenario of this tick species indicates that the northern cluster derived from admixture between the eastern and western populations 441 (median) to 224 (mode) generations ago, suggesting a possible link with the end of the Little Ice Age in Europe., (Copyright © 2023 Australian Society for Parasitology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ticks are important ectoparasites and vectors of pathogens that cause disease in humans and animals. The natural habitat of Ixodes ricinus ticks is forests, which are convenient habitats to search for hosts, including reservoir hosts, and therefore can be an important habitat source of tick-borne pathogens. The aim of the study was to assess the usefulness of detailed forest habitat-type maps to estimate the tick-borne risk at a local scale (Lower Silesia, SW Poland). For the purposes of estimating tick abundance, we used the land cover maps available from the Forest Data Bank. For I. ricinus collection, nine sites located in three forest habitat types were chosen: broadleaf forest, mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest and coniferous forest. Ticks were collected once a month from April to June 2018 and 2019 using the standard flagging method. At each of the nine sites, ticks were collected in four plots, of 100 m 2 each. Tick abundance was analysed using general linear mixed models (GLMM). A total of 2196 (10.1/100 m 2 ) ticks were collected, including 2093 Ixodes ricinus (95.3%; 9.6/100 m 2 ), 46 Dermacentor reticulatus (2.1%; 0.2/100 m 2 ) and 57 Haemaphysalis concinna (2.6%; 0.3/100 m 2 ). Among the collected I. ricinus were 589 larvae (28.1%; 2.7/100 m 2 ), 1261 nymphs (60.3%; 5.8/100 m 2 ), 128 females (6.1%; 0.6/100 m 2 ) and 115 males (5.5%; 0.5/100 m 2 ). We found a highly significant effect of forest habitat type on the density of ticks for broadleaf forest (coefficient = 1.87267, p-value = 2.79e - 07). Additionally, a significant influence of air temperature and relative humidity on the abundance of ticks was observed. During spring, the peak activity of I. ricinus was recorded in May and June. For DNA amplification of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., a nested PCR method was used. Out of 494 I. ricinus, 83 (16.8%) were positive for Borrelia spp. The RFLP method showed the occurrence of five species including four belonging to the B. burgdorferi s.l. complex: B. afzelii (30.1%), B. garinii (38.6%), B. valaisiana (2.4%) and B. lusitaniae (18.1%). Furthermore, B. miyamotoi (9.6%), a species belonging to bacteria that cause relapsing fever as well as co-infection of B. miyamotoi/B.lusitaniae (1.2%) were found. The differences in the infection level of Borrelia spp. between broadleaf forest and mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest were statistically significant., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Ornate dog tick, Dermacentor reticulatus is an important vector of Babesia canis, and Rickettsia spp. and other pathogens of veterinary and public health interest. The current study is the first to investigate the long-term changes in prevalence of these pathogens in expanding tick populations in Central Europe. Molecular techniques (PCR, sequencing) were applied for the detection of pathogen DNA in adult (n = 2497) and juvenile ticks (1096 larvae and 410 nymphs). DNA of Rickettsia spp. was identified in 35% of adults and 12.6% of juvenile ticks. DNA of B. canis was detected in 3% of adult ticks and only in ticks from the Eastern region (regional prevalence 6%). As previously, no B. canis-positive ticks were found in Western Poland, including ticks from Wrocław area (n = 298). DNA of B. canis was identified in 0.33% of juvenile ticks (in 3 pools of larvae and 2 nymphs) from the Eastern region. In the current study we confirmed high occurrence of R. raoultii in adults ticks from all four zones and relatively high prevalence of B. canis in the Eastern population of D. reticulatus, corresponding well with high incidence of canine babesiosis in this area of Poland. Finally, we confirmed R. raoultii and B. canis infection in all life stages of D. reticulatus ticks., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: The significance of tick-borne diseases has increased considerably in recent years. Because of the unique distribution of the tick species Dermacentor reticulatus in Poland, comprising two expanding populations, Eastern and Western that are separated by a Dermacentor-free zone, it is important to conduct studies on the process of tick expansion and emergence of canine babesiosis. The main aim of the current study was to monitor the expansion of D. reticulatus populations from spring 2016 to autumn 2018 to determine (1) the actual geographical range of this tick species, and (2) and the seasonal/annual shift in range limits and changes in distance between Western and Eastern populations of ticks (the size of the non-endemic area)., Methods: Ticks were collected in spring/autumn during a 3-year study. From each season and year at least three pairs of sites from the Western and Eastern populations were selected. Then the mean distance between paired sites was calculated for each season and year. We collected and analyzed data from veterinary clinics on the number of canine babesiosis cases treated in the clinic during a whole year (2018)., Results: Accordingly, further expansion of the two D. reticulatus populations was recorded, mainly along river basins. Marked colonization of the gap zone was observed, with a mean annual shift in the range of 2.5-10 km and a steadily decreasing distance between the two tick populations. The occurrence of babesiosis in different regions revealed low numbers of cases in Western Poland (19 cases/year) and the gap area (only 7 cases/year) and high incidence (up to 250 cases/1000 dogs) and fatality (total 3.65%) in Central and Eastern Poland. Strong associations were found geographically between tick and babesiosis occurrence and temporally in the seasonal patterns of occurrence of ticks and outbreaks of babesiosis., Conclusions: We documented the shift in range limits and continued process of colonization of the gap zone accompanied by the emergence of canine babesiosis in the Eastern expansion zone. Updated maps of the distribution of ticks and occurrence of babesiosis in different regions of Poland have allowed us to predict of the emergence of pathogens vectored by D. reticulatus. Incidence (per 1000 dogs) of canine babesiosis in veterinary clinics by current range of D. reticulatus.

The range of D. reticulatus is discontinuous in Europe, with a gap between the Western and Eastern European populations. Recent studies have shown, however, a decrease in the gap as a consequence of D. reticulatus spreading to new areas. This study aims to analyze the dynamic of local-scale changes in the D. reticulatus range in Lower Silesia, SW Poland. All sites of D. reticulatus presence recognized in our research were located in the north-western part of the study area (Wroclaw and its surroundings), whereas the south-eastern part was found to be free of these ticks. However, a five-year observation period (2014-2019) indicates the expansion of D. reticulatus on a local scale, with a general tendency to expand to the east, with northerly or southerly deviations from year to year. The settled sites differed in distance to the nearest built-up area, the density of resident population, as well as land development intensity in the immediate vicinity. The 100% probability isolines of D. reticulatus presence in Wroclaw and its surroundings allowed the determination of the rate of range change, which turned out to be uneven in terms of direction and speed. The average rate of change in the range of tick occurrence was estimated at 7 km in 3 years. A more accurate analysis of the estimated range changes-made using modeling and verification of predicted changes in the field-showed that the likely rate of range change can be estimated at around 0.6-2.3 km/year., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Entomopathogenic fungi of the genus Beauveria and Metarhizium play an important role in controlling the population of arthropods. However, the data on their effectiveness against ticks focus mainly on species that do not occur in Europe. The aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of entomopathogenic fungi against two of the most important tick species in Europe: Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus. In our study, the majority of tested entomopathogenic fungi strains showed potential efficacy against both tick species; however, D. reticulatus was less susceptible in comparison to I. ricinus. The observed mortality of ticks was up to 100% by using all commercial strains as well as three out of nine of the environmental strains. Among all tested fungi, the most effective against both tick species was environmental strain Metarhizium anisopliae LO4(1) with LC 50 values: 2.6 × 10 3  cfu/ml-5.7 × 10 5  cfu/ml. Botanigard proved to be more effective than MET52 with LC 50 values: 6.8 × 10 3  cfu/ml-3.3 × 10 6  cfu/ml. The conducted bioassays indicate the potential possibility of using the environmental isolates of entomopathogenic fungi, as well as commercial strains in control of local populations of I. ricinus and D. reticulatus; however, the possibility of using them in vivo requires more research.

Haemaphysalis concinna Koch is one of 19 species of the genus Haemaphysalis which has been reported in the Palearctic region. In Europe, the presence of H. concinna ticks has been reported in numerous countries. In Poland, to date, the precise occurrence of H. concinna was known only from one site in the north-western region. This paper shows that H. concinna ticks can be considered a typical example of the tick fauna occurring in Lower Silesia, SW Poland. Tick monitoring was conducted using a standard flagging method in 24 sites in the various forest types of Lower Silesia. Among 1622 host-seeking ticks collected, H. concinna accounted for 2.7%. From the collected H. concinna there were: 25 (58.1%) larvae, 15 (34.9%) nymphs, 1 (2.3%) female, and 2 (4.7%) males. The presence of H. concinna was confirmed in 6 out of 24 tested sites in fresh mixed broadleaf forests, fresh mixed coniferous forests and in pastures.

Bacillus thuringiensis is a highly specific entomopathogenic microorganism. Although defined as having properties which work against insects, its role in the control of tick populations is still insufficiently known. In our bioassay, four environmental strains of B. thuringiensis, along with one commercially available product (Vectobac), have been used against ticks. Vectobac turned out to be ineffective in the biocontrol of ticks; however, two of environmental B. thuringiensis strains proved to be efficient against both Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus. In those cases, the mortality rate for ticks was assessed as being up to 80%, and LC 50 ranged between 9.1 × 10 6 and 1.3 × 10 15 (cfu/ml). Dermacentor reticulatus males were the most sensitive to bacteria. The similarity between the most and least efficient B. thuringiensis strains in enzymatic profiles-including lipases, phosphatases, proteases, and chitinases-may indicate a limited role of detected enzymes in the pathogenicity profile of bacterial strains against ticks.

To estimate the Lyme borreliosis (LB) risk for forest workers, totally 646 blood samples were tested for IgG and IgM anti-Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. (anti-B.b.) antibody occurrence using ELISA tests confirmed with western blot. To clarify the varied LB risk, additionally, the data from the Forest Data Bank determining the detailed forest habitat type in particular forest inspectorates were used. The occurrence of the anti-B.b. antibody was confirmed in 22% (8.7% IgM, 17.8% IgG) of forest workers. Analysis of the influence of the habitat type (forest types) indicated the significant positive impact of the occurrence of the deciduous and mixed-deciduous forests on the seroprevalence of anti-B.b. IgG level among forestry workers. However, the share of forest type cannot be the only factor taken into account when assessing risk.

This paper presents the distribution of questing Ixodes ricinus ticks in suburban forest intensively visited by people. The local-scale observations conducted during a 4-year study at 99 plots (of 100m 2 each) located throughout the entire area of a riparian urban forest, showed a high variation in the density of ticks from year to year. Although I. ricinus is generally permanent in the study area, spatial distribution of sample plots harbouring I. ricinus is variable, i.e. mainly random for adults and larvae, and random or clustered for nymphs. Among the most common plant species in the herb layer, there were not any species which had a statistically significant and constant impact on the occurrence of any of the development stages of I. ricinus. Also relations between the density of tick development stages and vegetation variables, including cover of the herb layer, total species number, species number of the herb layer, and percentage coverage of particular species, as well as ecological indices for light, soil moisture, reaction, and nutrients, did not show any constant and predictable pattern in subsequent years of the study. Only tree and shrub layers were found as variables positively affecting the density of ticks. Although small, suburban forests can be considered as tick-borne risk areas, it is impossible to determine in details areas of tick-borne risk., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

This paper presents the unexpected winter activity of Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius, 1794) ticks in a newly emerging population in south-west Poland. Host-seeking ticks were collected from vegetation in January 2016 in a meadow ecosystem in six sites located in the Wroclaw Agglomeration, as well as from ten companion animals. A total of 238 questing D. reticulatus ticks, comprising 166 females and 72 males, were collected from all examined sites with the highest number of 102 specimens collected in one hour in one locality (Muchobór Wielki, Wrocław). Additionally, two fully-engorged females were collected from two dogs along with one slightly engorged female from a cat. The fact that D. reticulatus can be very active in January indicates a need to take into account the increased threat of tick-bite in the winter time., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction and Objectives: The ever-increasing number of patients with tick-borne diseases resulted in the presented study investigating the awareness, attitudes and knowledge among students about the threats arising from tick bites and preventive anti-tick practices., Materials and Method: Questionnaires concerning these issues were distributed amongst Czech and Polish university students of science. Responses were analyzed by nationality and by gender., Results: Nearly all respondents were aware of the risks arising from ticks and could name at least one disease transmitted by ticks. The Czech students felt more threatened by tick-borne diseases, had more frequently suffered from Lyme borreliosis and were vaccinated against tick-borne encephalitis more often than the Polish students. A large number of the participants applied preventive measures against ticks in order to protect themselves. The Czech students believed in the effectiveness of repellents statistically more often than the Polish students, while effectiveness is the main criterion for selection of the right repellent in both groups., Conclusion: Differences in preferences between the two nations appeared in many areas, e.g. the Czechs felt more threatened by all kind of risks and suffered from Lyme disease more frequently. Gaps can still be found in both the knowledge and behaviour among the respondents. It can be expected that the general public knowledge of this issue is rather limited in comparison with the students participating in the study, who are systematically educated in the field.

Background: Tick-borne infections are no longer confined to rural areas, they are documented with increasing frequency in urban settlements across the world. They are known to cause diseases in humans as well as in their companion animals., Methods: During a period of 2 years, from January 2013 until December 2014, ticks were collected from dogs and cats in 18 veterinary clinics in the Wrocław Agglomeration, Poland. In total, 1455 ticks were found on 931 pets: 760 domestic dogs and 171 cats. For molecular examinations 127 I. ricinus ticks (115 females and 12 males) were randomly selected, all collected I. hexagonus (n = 137, 32 females, 98 nymphs, 7 larvae) and all collected D. reticulatus (n = 46, 31 females, 15 males) were taken. Ixodes ricinus and I. hexagonus ticks were tested for Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Babesia spp., while D. reticulatus ticks were investigated for Rickettsia spp. and Babesia spp. only., Results: In total, 65.4 % I. ricinus ticks were infected with at least one pathogen. Over 50 % of I. ricinus were positive for Rickettsia spp. (R. helvetica and R. monacensis). The infection level with A. phagocytophilum was 21.3 %. DNA of Cand. N. mikurensis was detected in 8.1 % I. ricinus ticks. Interestingly only female ticks were infected. The prevalence of Babesia spp. was confirmed in 9.0 % of I. ricinus involving the species B. microti and B. venatorum. A total of nineteen double, one triple and two quadruple infections were found in I. ricinus ticks only. Almost 11 % of I. hexagonus ticks were positive for at least one of the tested pathogens. Rickettsia spp. infection was found in 2.2 %, while A. phagocytophilum was detected in 8.1 % of I. hexagonus ticks. Only one nymph was positive for Cand. N. mikurensis and none of I. hexagonus ticks harbored a Babesia spp. Over 60 % of D. reticulatus ticks were positive for rickettsial DNA, exclusively belonging to the species R. raoultii., Conclusion: The high tick infestation rates and the prevalence of pathogens found in these ticks demonstrate a serious level of encounter to tick-borne diseases in urban dogs in the Wroclaw area, and provide evidence that dogs and cats themselves may substantially contribute to the circulation of the ticks and pathogens in the urban area.

Unlabelled: Tests performed in 2013 and 2014 revealed the occurrence of three tick species parasitizing pet cats and dogs in the Wrocław Agglomeration. In total, 1,455 tick specimens were removed from 931 hosts (760 dogs and 171 cats) in 18 veterinary clinics. The dominant tick species was Ixodes ricinus (n=1272; 87.4%), followed by I. hexagonus (n=137; 9.4%) and Dermacentor reticulatus (n=46; 3.2%). Females were the most often collected development stage among I. ricinus and D. reticulatus, and nymphs among I. hexagonus. Additionally, D. reticulatus ticks (n=337) were then collected from vegetation in the Wrocław area to detect Babesia canis; however, none was found positive. Only 9.0% of dog blood samples sent to VETLAB were positive for Babesia spp. Negative results for B. canis from ticks may result from the short period of the occurrence of D. reticulatus in the Wrocław area and therefore the vectorpathogen cycle may not have been fully established at the time of the study. Nevertheless, D. reticulatus is expanding its range, and the size of its population in the Wrocław Agglomeration is increasing. The presence of the pathogenic Babesia spp. combined with the occurrence of its main vector¸ D. reticulatus, suggests that the epizootiological situation in the area can change and may pose a new veterinary problem in the future., Key Words: Dermacentor reticulatus, Babesia canis, pets, Wrocław, Poland.

The collection of 729 tick specimens (Ixodes ricinus, 88.6%; Ixodes hexagonus, 9.2%; Dermacentor reticulatus, 2.2%) removed from 373 dogs and 78 cats, along with 201 ticks from vegetation (I. ricinus, 75.6%; D. reticulatus, 24.4%), allows one to say that pets play an important role in maintaining tick life cycles in different urban area. It shows the lack of statistical differences between tick intensity in high-impact anthropogenic areas (HIAA), low-impact anthropogenic areas (LIAA) and mixed areas designed, in an objective way, by GIS techniques. The comparable (statistically insignificant) level of infection with Borrelia spp. of I. ricinus from pets (22.5%) and vegetation (24.8%), shows that dogs and cats do not have zooprophylactic competence for Borrelia spp. in different urban areas. Moreover, Borrelia spp. was detected in I. hexagonues (1.5%) collected from pets, and in D. reticulatus (2%) obtained from vegetation. The presence of D. reticulatus in the Wrocław Agglomeration confirms its expansion and the distribution range in Poland., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Ixodes ricinus is the primary vector of Borrelia spirochetes in Europe, including both the Lyme borreliosis (LB) group and the relapsing fever (RF) group. The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of different genospecies from the B. burgdorferi s.l. complex and B. miyamotoi in questing I. ricinus collected in chosen areas in Lower Silesia, SW Poland. A total of 599 I. ricinus ticks were investigated using the PCR-RFLP method. The calculated overall minimum infection rate of ticks with Borrelia spirochetes in Lower Silesia was 15.5%. Five different restriction patterns, characteristic of B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. burgdoreri s.s., B. valaisiana, and B. miyamotoi, were obtained and confirmed by DNA sequencing. At least 14% of ticks were infected with B. burgdorferi s.l. while B.afzelii was the dominant genospecies (68.5%). The MIR for B. miyamotoi was calculated at 2%. Four co-infections in single adult ticks were found: B. miyamotoi/B. afzelii, B. miyamotoi/B. burdorferi s.s., B. miyamotoi/B. garinii, and B. afzelii/B. burgdorferi s.s. The results of this study confirm the risk of LB and RF occuring in both urban and protected areas., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

The relationship between climate data and tick questing activity is crucial for estimation of the spatial and temporal distribution of the risk of ticks and tick-borne diseases. This study establishes correlations between selected meteorological variables provided by the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) and the questing activity of Ixodes ricinus nymphs and adults on a regional scale across Lower Silesia, Poland. Application of Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM), built separately for adults and nymphs, showed that solar radiation, air temperature, and saturation deficit appeared to be the meteorological variables of prime importance, whereas the wind speed was less important. However, the effect of meteorological parameters was different for adults and nymphs. The adults are also more influenced by forest cover and the percentage of forest type if compared to nymphs. The WRF model providing meteorological variables separately for each location and day of tick sampling can be useful in studies of questing activity of ticks on a regional scale., (© 2014 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Ticks constitute important vectors of human and animal pathogens. Besides the Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis, other pathogens such as Babesia spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, are of increasing public health interest. In Poland, as in other European countries, Ixodes ricinus, the most prevalent tick species responsible for the majority of tick bites in humans, is the main vector of A. phagocytophilum. The aim of the study was to estimate the infection level of I. ricinus with A. phagocytophilum in selected districts, not previously surveyed for the presence of this agent. Sampling of questing ticks was performed in 12 forested sites, located in four districts (Legnica, Milicz, Lubań, and Oława) in SW Poland. Altogether, 792 ticks (151 females, 101 males, and 540 nymphs) representing I. ricinus were checked for the presence of A. phagocytophilum. The average infection level was 4.3%, with higher rate reported for adult ticks. The highest percentage of infected adults was observed in Milicz (17.4%) and the lowest in Oława (6.8%). The abundance of questing I. ricinus in all examined sites as well as the infection with A. phagocytophilum indicate for the first time the risk for HGA transmission in SW Poland.

The epidemiological and epizootic importance of ticks has been known for a few decades since of the discovery of their role as vectors of many new diseases, and the better detection of those already known. Given the durability of chemical preparations in the environment and the increasing problem of developing tick resistance, natural strategies for biological control are sought. A promising alternative to chemical pesticides is the use of entomopathogenic organisms for effective integrated pest management of low environmental impact. A number of promising microbes have been identified during the search for effective means of controlling the tick population, but the knowledge about the impact of these pathogens on the environment and other non-target organisms is still insufficient. Previous research has still not provided a definite answer about the safety of their use. It is known, however,that the chemicals which are currently used have a negative impact on the environment and/or cause resistance. No efficient biocompound has yet been devised for commercial use. Potential microorganisms for tick biocontrol (mainly bacteria and fungi) are natural tick pathogens, living in the same environment. With their adhesive properties, and their ability to digest the cuticle, they may constitute an appropriate ingredient of bioacaricides. Until now, fungal insecticides have been used only to control crop pests.

The expansion of Dermacentor reticulatus to new geographical areas has been observed in several countries in Europe, including Poland and it's neighbors. In 2011 and 2012, a total of 148 host-seeking D. reticulatus ticks were collected after flagging the vegetation in Lower Silesia, south-western Poland. Tick monitoring was conducted in mixed and deciduous forest, on meadows, in river valleys and ecotones between forested and grassy areas. The ornate dog ticks were found in 10 out of 33 sites located in five districts: Legnica, Wroclaw, Środa Śląska, Lubin and Boleslawiec County. All sites where D. reticulatus ticks were found are located to the south-west of the Odra River. The greatest distance between these disconnected localities was approximately 90 km. It seems that at present the southern boundary of the range is Wroclaw district. This study indicates that D. reticulatus can be ranked as a typical element of the fauna in Lower Silesia in southwestern Poland.

The qualitative and quantitative mycological composition of indoor areas of three private residencies and an academic dormitory in Wroclaw, Poland was investigated. Seasonal fungal samples were obtained using a MAS-100 air sampler. The samples were cultured on three different media: Sabouraud Agar (SAB), Dichloran Glycerol Selective Medium (DG18) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA). The number of colony forming unit (CFU) values ranged from 10 CFU/m3 to 490 CFU/m3 depending on the culture medium, season, and sampling site. The identification of the cultured fungi was performed using macro- and microscopic observations and diagnostic keys. Eleven fungal genera were identified. The most common fungi were members of genera Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Fusarium; the least common fungi were members of genera Geotrichum and Paecilomyces. Seasonal variations in the concentration of fungi were observed with the highest concentration of fungi in the spring and the lowest concentration of fungi in the winter. There were no statistically significant correlations between fungal concentrations and the temperature or the relative humidity of the sample sites.

Arthropod-borne diseases still pose a serious health problem worldwide. Epidemiological consequences result from various environmental connections and interaction between parasites and their host, including host specificity of parasites and transmitted pathogens. The ixodid ticks (Ixodida) occupy a prominent position within the group of parasites as being vectors on the northern hemisphere in temperate climate zone. They are blood-feeding ectoparasites with different host specificity and capacity to transmit various pathogens. Feeding on many mammals (including humans), birds, reptiles and amphibians they present a great medical problem. For example, Ixodes ricinus can infest several hundred species of animals. It is a vector of pathogenic viral, bacterial and protozoal organisms, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex which is the etiological agent of Lyme borreliosis. The competent reservoir hosts of Borrelia include many common species of small and medium-sized rodents as well as several bird species. Epidemiological consequences are complicated by the fact that specific Borrelia genospecies are associated with particular reservoir hosts. Thus, detailed analysis of epidemiological consequences requires a comprehensive knowledge of the biology and ecology of vectors, pathogens and their reservoirs including host specificity of ticks. Spatial modelling tick-borne risk in time and space is made possible by the use of remote sensing and techniques of geographical information system (GIS).

The ornate dog tick, D. reticulatus, is the second most common tick species in Europe. It occurs across the temperate zone of Eurasia, from England and France to the basin of the Jenisej River in Siberia, and the occurrence area ranges from 56-57 degrees N latitude down to 52 degrees N latitude. The range is divided into two distinct parts, the West-European and the Eastern part. The western region covers France and northern Spain, South-western England and Wales, Germany, Austria, Czech, Western Slovakia and Hungary. The eastern region extends from the eastern part of Poland and Slovakia, through Belarus and Russia as far east as Siberia. The southern parts of this region cover Ukraine, Eastern Hungary and Romania. From the 1970s, D. reticulatus has expanded its area of occurrence. In Poland, the front of the area is historically situated along the Vistula River. From the 1980s new tick populations has appeared to the west of this border. In the past years, new populations of D. reticulatus appeared close to the western border of Poland near Szczecin and Wrocław. These are possibly the first observations of the merge between the two separated areas of D. reticulatus occurrence.

Two evaluations of microbial mosquito larvicides were conducted in irrigation fields located along the Odra River near the city of Wroclaw, Poland. In the first evaluation, 3 dosages each of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti)--VectoBac water dispersible granule (WDG) and VectoBac aqueous suspension formulation (12AS)--and Bacillus sphaericus (Bs)--VectoLex WDG--were tested against larvae of Culex pipiens pipiens. There was little difference between formulations and rates of application between day 2 and 7 following the treatment. VectoBac WDG at 300 g/ha resulted in 100% mortality of Cx. p. pipiens. Between 0.5 and 1 liter of VectoBac 12AS caused sufficient mortality for up to 7 days. The effective shortterm application rate of VectoLex WDG was found to be 400 g/ha. The above doses can be recommended for up to 7-day control in this habitat. In the second evaluation, using VectoBac WDG at 800 g/ha, the residual efficacies of 2 ground application methods, a knapsack sprayer configured for large droplet application and a motorized backpack blower configured for small droplet application, were compared. The results indicated no significant difference between the 2 application methods, but a significant long-term effect of VectoBac WDG was observed at the rate of 800 g/ha.

While the mapping of health data is not new for epidemiologists the incorporation of differentiated environmental factors, e.g., temperature, rainfall, humidity, elevation, vegetation type, host abundance and distribution, zoonotic reservoirs of infection can create a new opportunities for parasitologists. Suitable tools for spatial modeling of health problems and pathogen occurrence in space and time are provided by geographic information system (GIS). It is computer-based system which integrates, storages, edits, analyses, shares and displays information. This software system is based on connection between information--data and their location. GIS applications allow users to create interactive queries, analyze spatial information, edit data and maps. GIS is very useful to define the habitats of parasites, especially for the ticks which are strong depended on environmental conditions. Mapping not only enables to create maps based on field monitoring but also to create forecasting maps for prevention and control strategies on small and large scale. Up to now ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBD) having strong relationship with the ecosystem are highly amenable to predictive mapping. The aim of study is the characterization of procedural steps with regard to entering field environmental data to GIS database and their visualization on digital maps. The field date of tick monitoring conducted in April 2008 in the Wrocław area (the Osobowicki Forest) made possible to create digital database. ArcView as one of three separate software products of ArcGIS (a scalable framework for implementing GIS) was used to create an interactive maps. Visualization of the data which are stored in tables of attributes made possible to show legibly the distribution of I. ricinus on the analysed area. Mapping of I. ricinus occurrence on digital maps enable to indicate areas of the highest risk of biting and potential tick-borne diseases.

The aim of this study was to biometrically analyze the behavioral activity of Ixodes ricinus ticks as influenced by season and trend in numbers, based on material collected during three years in the Sleza Landscape Park within the Sleza Massif (Lower Silesia, Poland) using a time series decomposition method. The effects of the abiotic factors of air temperature and humidity on this activity were also determined. A total of 2,745 nymphs and adults of I. ricinus was observed and collected from 2001 through 2003. It was the only collected species from the 17 representatives of the family Ixodidae recorded from Poland. The abundance of the common tick in the Sleza Landscape Park confirms the risk of tick-borne diseases in these nature areas that are under legal protection. The chance of being bitten by ticks increases in the spring and autumn when the behavioral activity of these arthropods reaches their highest levels. Predictions concerning the level of tick behavioral activity should take into account not only seasonality but also the effects of random components, which accounted for about half of the tick activity in our study. The method of time series decomposition employed in our research appears to be useful in making such prognoses. Humidity is particularly significant as it can determine the activity of I. ricinus to a large extent.

Climate models suggest the strong possibility of range increase of the diseases transmitted by parasitic arthropods, mostly mosquitoes. In predicting processes of malaria and Dengue diseases dispersion the estimation of risk is based mostly on reproduction rate of vector species. These models allow to calculate the critical threshold of host density which is necessary to maintain parasites and pathogens transmission. Such studies based on integrated mathematical modelling indicate widespread increase of risk due to expansion of the areas suitable for mosquito-borne diseases transmission. This predicted increase is the most pronounced at the borders of the endemic areas and at higher altitudes within malaria and Dengue areas. The simulated change in mosquito-borne diseases risk must be interpreted on the basis of local environmental conditions as well as the effects of socio-economic developments and control disease programs. Apart from mathematical models the sequencing of proteins and DNA of vectors and their pathogens as well as satellite technology (GIS) are taken into consideration. It is supposed that potential impact of global climate change on malaria and Dengue risk can be reduced by constant warning system based on biological monitoring of mosquito vector species and their pathogens. Efficient care system connected with full diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of transmission diseases are also required.

Background: The data on the lice of small mammals, which can be the vectors of some human pathogens, are rather scarce in Poland., Material: During 2001-2004 an investigation of the lice of rodents was undertaken in the area of Lover Silesia. The research was concentrated on habitat in Masyw Slezy (about 35 km from Wrocław, popular recreational area) and on two habitats in Wrocław: in Osobowice (irrigation fields) and Mokry Dwór (water-bearing ground). 105 rodents belonging to three species: Apodemus agrarius (35), Apodemus flavicolis (30) and Clethrionomys glareolus (40) were examined., Results: On 13 individuals of rodents 68 lice (Anoplura) of 3 species were found: Hoplopleura affinis (Burmeister, 1839)--21 females and 8 male, H. acanthopus (Burmeister, 1839)--2 females and Polyplax serrata (Burmeister, 1839)--22 females, 11 male and 4 nymphs. The prevalence of lice infestation was 12.4%; A. agrarius was the most infected rodent (prevalence 25%). The most numerous lice were P. serrata. This species was recorded on A. agrarius (11.4%) and A. flavicolis (3.3%) collected in Wrocław, and on C. glareolus (2.5%) collected in Masyw Slezy. Only single individuals of P. serrata were found on Apodemus (the mean intensity was 1.25). A big collection (17 females, 11 males and 3 nymphs) was gathered on C. glareolus. H. affinis was found only on a typical host A. agrarius (14.3%) collected in both habitats in Wrocław (mean intensity 4.75). H. acanthopus was found only on C. glareolus (prevalence 5.0%). No mixed infestation was recorded. Higer infestation of hosts was in habitats of Wrocław than in Masyw Slezy.

The aim of the study was the analysis of Lyme borreliosis cases notified by Clinic for Infections Diseases in Wrocław in connection with exposure to ticks in year 2002. In the analyzed group of patients tick bites were confirmed in 77.9% and the most common places of exposition were forest regions in Lower Silesia (Masyw Slezy, Wzgórza Twardógorskie, Kotlina Kłodzka, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Bory Dolnoślaskie) and in Wrocław area. EM appeared in 55.8% cases. In cases of multiple ticks professionally exposured persons EM appeared only in 22.2%.

Within 2001-2003, a total of 4743 ticks of Ixodes ricinus were trapped from the forest area in Masyw Sliy (Lower Silesia, Poland) near Wrocław. Common distribution of ixodid ticks in all examined habitats, located near touristic routes, are potential loci of Lyme borreliosis in these recreational areas. Out of 1108 tick samples examined by the observation in DFM for the presence of spirochetes, 6.7% were positive. The highest percent of infected ticks (13.1%) was found in 2003.

Up to now, the co-occurrence of parasites sensu stricto and fungi were confirmed mostly in the oral cavity. The aim of the present parallel parasitological and mycological investigations was to determine co-occurrence of protozoa, helminths and fungi (parasites sensu lato) both in smears from cavity and in stool samples of 93 patients undergoing the non-parasitological treatment in two hospitals of Lower Silesia (Poland). Among the examined patients parasites sensu lato (13 species) were found in 62 cases (63%). Trofozoites of Trichomonas tenax and/or Entamoeba gingivalis as well as fungi (Candida albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicalis and C. pseudotropicalis) occurred in 10% of the examined patients. Almost all infected cases (90%) were joined with infection of common invasion of protozoa and fungi. In stool common invasion of parasites sensu lato (Giardia intestinalis, Entamoeba coli, Ascaris lumbricoides, Taenia sp., Enterobius vermicularis as well as Candida albicans, C. krusei, C. pseudotropicalis, C. guilliermondii and Rhodotorula sp.) were found in 12% of the patiens. The co-occurrence of parasites and fungi was stated in the half of invasions. C. albicans was the most often co-occurring species in alimentary tract.