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Many experiments have shown that biodiversity enhances ecosystem functioning. However, we have little understanding of how environmental heterogeneity shapes the effect of diversity on ecosystem functioning and to what extent this diversity effect is mediated by variation in species richness or species turnover. This knowledge is crucial to scaling up the results of experiments from local to regional scales. Here we quantify the diversity effect and its components-that is, the contributions of variation in species richness and species turnover-for 22 ecosystem functions of microorganisms, plants and animals across 13 major ecosystem types on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Environmental heterogeneity across ecosystem types on average increased the diversity effect from explaining 49% to 72% of the variation in ecosystem functions. In contrast to our expectation, the diversity effect was more strongly mediated by variation in species richness than by species turnover. Our findings reveal that environmental heterogeneity strengthens the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and that species richness is a stronger driver of ecosystem functioning than species turnover. Based on a broad range of taxa and ecosystem functions in a non-experimental system, these results are in line with predictions from biodiversity experiments and emphasize that conserving biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecosystem functioning.

Agriculture and the exploitation of natural resources have transformed tropical mountain ecosystems across the world, and the consequences of these transformations for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are largely unknown1-3. Conclusions that are derived from studies in non-mountainous areas are not suitable for predicting the effects of land-use changes on tropical mountains because the climatic environment rapidly changes with elevation, which may mitigate or amplify the effects of land use4,5. It is of key importance to understand how the interplay of climate and land use constrains biodiversity and ecosystem functions to determine the consequences of global change for mountain ecosystems. Here we show that the interacting effects of climate and land use reshape elevational trends in biodiversity and ecosystem functions on Africa's largest mountain, Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania). We find that increasing land-use intensity causes larger losses of plant and animal species richness in the arid lowlands than in humid submontane and montane zones. Increases in land-use intensity are associated with significant changes in the composition of plant, animal and microorganism communities; stronger modifications of plant and animal communities occur in arid and humid ecosystems, respectively. Temperature, precipitation and land use jointly modulate soil properties, nutrient turnover, greenhouse gas emissions, plant biomass and productivity, as well as animal interactions. Our data suggest that the response of ecosystem functions to land-use intensity depends strongly on climate; more-severe changes in ecosystem functioning occur in the arid lowlands and the cold montane zone. Interactions between climate and land use explained-on average-54% of the variation in species richness, species composition and ecosystem functions, whereas only 30% of variation was related to single drivers. Our study reveals that climate can modulate the effects of land use on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and points to a lowered resistance of ecosystems in climatically challenging environments to ongoing land-use changes in tropical mountainous regions.

Snakebite envenoming causes more than 140,000 deaths annually and at least triple this number of disabilities. The World Health Organization classified snakebite as a Neglected Tropical Disease in 2017 and developed a strategy to halve death and disability from snakebite by 2030. To achieve this goal, snakebite victims need to receive safe and effective treatment. This descriptive, cross-sectional study surveyed student health professionals (N = 312) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and was designed to identify major gaps in community practices and hospital resources for snakebite treatment. Participants reported using traditional community practices (44%, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 39–50%), allopathic practices (7%, 95% CI = 5–11%), or a combination of both (49%, 95% CI = 43–54%) to treat snakebite. Harmful practices included tight arterial tourniquets (46%, 95% CI = 41–52%) and wound incisions (15%, 95% CI = 11–19%). Many participants (35%, 95% CI = 29–40%) also turned to traditional healers. Students who treated snakebite injuries within the last 5 years (N = 69) also reported their general experiences with snakebite in hospitals. Hospitals often lacked essential resources to treat snakebite victims, and 44% (95% CI = 30–59%) of snakebite victims arrived at a hospital only three or more hours after the bite. A significant percentage of snakebite victims experienced lasting damage (32%, 95% CI = 20–47%) or death (14%, 95% CI = 7–25%). Snakebite outcomes could likely be improved if hospitals were universally and consistently equipped with the essential resources to treat snakebite victims, such as antivenoms. Educational interventions aimed at communities should focus on discouraging tourniquet use and tampering with the wound. Collaboration between the allopathic and traditional health system could further boost snakebite outcomes because traditional healers are often the first health workers to see snakebite victims.

While patterns in species diversity have been well studied across large‐scale environmental gradients, little is known about how species’ interaction networks change in response to abiotic and biotic factors across such gradients. Here we studied seed‐dispersal networks on 50 study plots distributed over ten different habitat types on the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, to disentangle the effects of climate, habitat structure, fruit diversity and fruit availability on different measures of interaction diversity. We used direct observations to record the interactions of frugivorous birds and mammals with fleshy‐fruited plants and recorded climatic conditions, habitat structure, fruit diversity and availability. We found that Shannon interaction diversity (H) increased with fruit diversity and availability, whereas interaction evenness (EH) and network specialization (H₂) responded differently to changes in fruit availability depending on habitat structure. The direction of the effects of fruit availability on EH and H₂ differed between open habitats at the mountain base and structurally complex habitats in the forest belt. Our findings illustrate that interaction networks react differently to changes in environmental conditions in different ecosystems. Hence, our findings demonstrate that future projections of network structure and associated ecosystem functions need to account for habitat differences among ecosystems.

Aim Climate change and an increase in human disturbance are major drivers of global biodiversity loss. Yet it is not clear to what extent their effects on animal communities are direct or indirectly mediated by changes in biotic factors, such as plant diversity. Here, we disentangle the direct and indirect effects of climate, human disturbance, vegetation structure and plant functional traits on the functional diversity of avian frugivore communities across a large environmental gradient. Location Mount Kilimanjaro. Time period Sampling between November 2013 and October 2015. Major taxa studied Fleshy-fruited plants, frugivorous birds. Methods We sampled plant and bird communities along an elevational and a human disturbance gradient and measured corresponding morphological traits of plants and birds to calculate indices of functional identity and functional diversity of plant and bird communities. We used structural equation models to disentangle direct and indirect effects of all variables on functional identity and diversity of frugivorous bird communities. Results Both functional identity and diversity of frugivorous bird communities were consistently related to the functional identity and diversity of plant communities. Climate had almost exclusively indirect effects on functional identity and diversity of bird communities mediated through effects on plant functional identity and diversity. In contrast, human disturbance also had direct negative effects on bird diversity. Main conclusions We show that plant functional identity and diversity are the most important drivers of functional identity and diversity of frugivorous birds. Although effects of climate on bird communities are almost exclusively mediated indirectly through plant communities, human disturbance resulted in a direct reduction of bird diversity. The high degree of trait matching between interdependent trophic levels over a large environmental gradient demonstrates the importance of biotic drivers for animal communities and shows that biodiversity models need to consider such bottom-up effects in future conditions.

Assessments of biodiversity patterns and threats among African reptiles have lagged behind those of other vertebrate groups and regions. We report the first systematic assessment of the distribution, threat status, and climate change vulnerability for the reptiles of Tanzania. A total of 321 reptile species (including 90 Tanzanian endemics) were assessed using the global standard IUCN Red List methodology and 274 species were also assessed using the IUCN guidelines for climate change vulnerability. Patterns of species richness and threat assessment confirm the conservation importance of the Eastern Arc Mountains, as previously demonstrated for birds, mammals and amphibians. Lowland forests and savannah-woodland habitats also support important reptile assemblages. Protected area gap analysis shows that 116 species have less than 20% of their distribution ranges protected, among which 12 are unprotected, eight species are threatened and 54 are vulnerable to climate change. Tanzania's northern margins and drier central corridor support high numbers of climate vulnerable reptile species, together with the eastern African coastal forests and the region between Lake Victoria and Rwanda. This paper fills a major gap in our understanding of the distribution and threats facing Tanzania's reptiles, and demonstrates more broadly that the explicit integration of climate change vulnerability in Red Listing criteria may revise spatial priorities for conservation.

Forest fragmentation can lead to extinctions of some species at local levels and is eroding bird diversity at an increasing rate. While there is information on the distribution of forest bird species in most of the Eastern Arc Mountain forests, some forests, particularly the smaller fragments, have not been adequately surveyed. Using mist netting we surveyed avifauna in some of the poorly known forests (12.5–25 ha) located 320–1 300 m above sea level in the Uluguru Mountains in order to address their conservation importance. Proportions of seasonal altitudinal migrants were significantly higher in these lower-altitude forests during the cold season than the hot season. The results suggest that these forests support bird species of conservation concern, most of which are forest dependent and some of which make seasonal movements between high-altitude montane forests and lowland/ foothill forests. These forests are important cold-season habitat of altitudinal migrants and further fragmentation should be halted as a matter of regional and global priority.Keywords: altitudinal gradient, altitudinal migration, bird distribution, conservation, fragmentation, mist-netting

Agriculture and the exploitation of natural resources have transformed tropical mountain ecosystems across the world, and the consequences of these transformations for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are largely unknown

A checklist of millipedes (Diplopoda) known to occur in Tanzania is given. Based on all available literature and abundant hitherto unpublished material, 296 species of millipedes are recorded, including seven species never before recorded from the country, viz., Helicochetus digititarsus Kraus, 1957, Helicochetus gregorii (Pocock, 1896), Geotypodon intermedius (Carl, 1909), Plethocrossus nairobinus Attems, 1914, Lophostreptus bicolor Carl, 1909, Oreiadessa diana Hoffman, 1990, and Chondromorpha xanthotricha (Attems, 1898). Eight species erroneously recorded from Tanzania are excluded from the list. A few records from Kenya and Uganda are also given, including the first record of Otostreptus gilvitarsus (Attems, 1914) from Kenya. A historical account of millipede collecting in Tanzania is included.Keywords: species, endemism, collecting

Plantation forests generally support lower bird diversity than natural forests. However, in some instances the plantations have been found to provide suitable habitat for a number of bird species. In the Eastern Arc Mountains, there is limited knowledge how understorey birds, some of which make seasonal altitudinal movements, use plantations. Using mist netting we assessed seasonal use of the plantation forest by the understorey bird community in Bunduki Forest Reserve in the Uluguru Mountains. Species diversity and capture rates were significantly higher during the cold season than during the hot season possibly due to seasonal altitudinal migration by some species. The use of plantations by those species that make seasonal altitudinal movements shows that plantation forests can enhance indigenous biodiversity by enabling connectivity between two or more natural forest patches. Our findings suggest that in a situation where there is no natural forest, an exotic plantation with suitable indigenous understorey cover can help in protection of birds, including endemic and near-endemic species.Keywords: birds, conservation, Eastern Arc Mountains, plantation, seasonal altitudinal migration, seasons, species diversity

Land-use intensification has consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, with various taxonomic groups differing widely in their sensitivity. As land-use intensification alters habitat structure and resource availability, both factors may contribute to explaining differences in animal species diversity. Within the local animal assemblages the flying vertebrates, bats and birds, provide important and partly complementary ecosystem functions. We tested how bats and birds respond to land-use intensification and compared abundance, species richness, and community composition across a land-use gradient including forest, traditional agroforests (home garden), coffee plantations and grasslands on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Furthermore, we asked how sensitive different habitat and feeding guilds of bats and birds react to land-use intensification and the associated alterations in vegetation structure and food resource availability. In contrast to our expectations, land-use intensification had no negative effect on species richness and abundance of all birds and bats. However, some habitat and feeding guilds, in particular forest specialist and frugivorous birds, were highly sensitive to land-use intensification. Although the habitat guilds of both, birds and bats, depended on a certain degree of vegetation structure, total bat and bird abundance was mediated primarily by the availability of the respective food resources. Even though the highly structured southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro are able to maintain diverse bat and bird assemblages, the sensitivity of avian forest specialists against land-use intensification and the dependence of the bat and bird habitat guilds on a certain vegetation structure demonstrate that conservation plans should place special emphasis on these guilds.

Species’ functional traits set the blueprint for pair-wise interactions in ecological networks. Yet, it is unknown to what extent the functional diversity of plant and animal communities controls network assembly along environmental gradients in real-world ecosystems. Here we address this question with a unique dataset of mutualistic bird–fruit, bird–flower and insect–flower interaction networks and associated functional traits of 200 plant and 282 animal species sampled along broad climate and land-use gradients on Mt. Kilimanjaro. We show that plant functional diversity is mainly limited by precipitation, while animal functional diversity is primarily limited by temperature. Furthermore, shifts in plant and animal functional diversity along the elevational gradient control the niche breadth and partitioning of the respective other trophic level. These findings reveal that climatic constraints on the functional diversity of either plants or animals determine the relative importance of bottom-up and top-down control in plant–animal interaction networks., Differential responses of plant and animal functional diversity to climatic variation could affect trait matching in mutualistic interactions. Here, Albrecht et al. show that network structure varies across an elevational gradient owing to bottom-up and top-down effects of functional diversity.

Aim We map estimated historical population declines resulting from speciesspecific models of sensitivity to habitat fragmentation for three forest-dependent chameleons. Location East Usambara Mountains, Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania. Methods We surveyed three chameleon species (Rhampholeon spinosus, Rhampholeon temporalis and Trioceros deremensis) along 32.2 km of transects and used a hierarchical, distance-sampling model to estimate densities. The model included habitat characteristics at the landscape (patch) and local (transect) scales while accounting for detectability. By analysing the model in a Bayesian framework, we were able to propagate error through the entire analysis and obtain exact solutions despite small sample sizes. We then used our estimated relationships between habitat and density to project chameleon population sizes across current and historical land cover maps of the study area (230 km 2 ), giving an estimate of the impact of anthropogenic habitat alteration on these

Aim: The persistence and stability of habitats through time are considered predictors of high levels of biodiversity in some environments. Long-term habitat persistence and stability may explain the species-rich, endemic forest fauna and flora of the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Region (EABR). Using complementary phylogenetic and biogeographical approaches, we examine evolutionary patterns in EABR brevicipitid frogs. Using these data, we test whether brevicipitid history reflects patterns of long-term forest persistence and/or stability across the EABR. Location: East Africa. Methods: A dated phylogeny for brevicipitids was constructed using two nuclear and three mitochondrial markers. Alternative diversification models were used to determine signal for constant or varying net diversification rates. Using our dated tree, we identified areas of high phylogenetic diversity (PD), and inferred ancestral areas using likelihood and Bayesian approaches. Results: Brevicipitids have a long history, with generic diversification among extant lineages pre-dating the Oligocene (> 33 Ma). Ancestral-area reconstructions indicate the presence of brevicipitids in the EABR since the Oligocene, and support a scenario of palaeoendemics surviving in EABR refugia. Ancestral-area reconstructions indicate that the central Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM) formed the initial centre of diversification of forest brevicipitids. Measures of PD show that diversity varies across the EABR but is highest in the EAM. Constant net diversification rate in brevicipitids is a significantly better fit than alternative, rate-variable models. Main conclusions: The degree of persistence of forest habitats appears to be a contributing factor to the varying levels of diversity across the EABR in brevicipitids (and other organisms). In contrast to the Southern Highlands and Ethiopian Bale Mountains, the EAM stands out as an area that enabled the constant accumulation of brevicipitid species over a long period of time. Fil: Loader, Simon P.. Universidad de Basilea; Suiza Fil: Ceccarelli, Fadia Sara. Universidad de Basilea; Suiza. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Menegon, Michele. Museo delle Scienze di Trento; Italia Fil: Howell, Kim M.. University of Dar es Salaam; Tanzania Fil: Kassahun, Roman. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority; Etiopía Fil: Mengistu, Abebe A.. Adama Science and Technology University; Etiopía Fil: Saber, Samy A.. Al-Azhar University; Egipto Fil: Gebresenbet, Fikirte. Oklahoma State University; Estados Unidos Fil: de Sa, Rafael. University of Richmond; Estados Unidos Fil: Davenport, Tim R. B.. Wildlife Conservation Society; Tanzania Fil: Larson, Joanna G.. Harvard University; Estados Unidos Fil: Müller, Hendrik. Universitat Jena; Alemania Fil: Wilkinson, Mark. Natural History Museum; Reino Unido Fil: Gower, David J.. Natural History Museum; Reino Unido

Aim Climate is widely recognized as a major predictor of species richness patterns along large-scale environmental gradients. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which climate influences species richness are still a matter of debate. We disentangle whether climate influences species richness of birds directly via physiological limitations or indirectly via vegetation structure or the availability of food resources. Location Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Methods We recorded bird species richness along an elevational gradient from 870 to 4550 m a.s.l. We quantified local climatic conditions, vegetation structure and the availability of food resources, and applied path analysis to disentangle their direct and indirect effects on species richness of all birds, frugivores and insectivores. Results Overall, we recorded 2945 individuals from 114 bird species. Species richness of all birds was closely correlated with temperature, vegetation structure and invertebrate biomass and both direct and indirect (via vegetation structure and availability of food resources) climatic effects were important for the diversity of the whole, trophically heterogeneous bird community. The species richness of insectivorous birds was linked to vegetation structure and invertebrate biomass, while the richness of frugivores was strongly associated with fruit abundance. Climatic factors influenced bird species richness of both avian feeding guilds exclusively indirectly via vegetation structure and availability of food resources. Main conclusions We reveal the importance of trophic interactions for generating species richness patterns along large-scale environmental gradients. Our results challenge the general assumption that temperature and water availability influence species richness mostly directly, and underscore the importance of vegetation structure and the availability of food resources as principal mediators of climatic effects on species richness patterns on macroecological scales.

A study on seasonal variations in the abundance of Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor) in relation to phytoplankton abundance in lake Manyara was conducted for a period of fourteen consecutive months (July 2007 to August 2008). The aim was to relate the temporal variability in the phytoplankton species abundance and diversity of the lake to the population size of the Lesser Flamingo. Lesser Flamingo population numbers were obtained from monthly ground surveys whereby the lake was subdivided into defined counting vantage points. Water samples for phytoplankton species composition and biomass analyses were taken to the University of Dar es Salaam for laboratory analysis. The flamingo population estimates ranged from 9319 in August 2007 to 640,850 in August 2008. The Lesser Flamingo populations showed that temporal fluctuations were related to the changes in the abundance and diversity of phytoplankton species. The occurrence of Arthrospira associated with the increase in the abundance of Lesser Flamingo. It was observed that changes in the Lesser Flamingo numbers were influenced by the changes in the abundance and availability of their preferred food. The results indicated that microalgae assemblage positively correlated with ammonium and nitrate which were also related to the abundance of lesser flamingo. The phytoplankton community was dominated by cyanobacteria particularly Arthrosipira fusiformis likely due to the high lake salinity and pH that limited the growth of other microalgae. Correlation analysis showed strong correlation between the Lesser Flamingo abundance with the concentration of nitrate and ammonium and between the number of Lesser Flamingo and the cyanobacterium Arthrospira.

The 15th meeting of the African Amphibian Working Group celebrated the contributions of John Charles Poynton to African Herpetology. The meeting, in Trento, Italy, was timed to commemorate John's 81st birthday (in May 2012), and he presented a keynote speech that focused on a topic that has long fascinated him - the Afrotemperate amphibian fauna. His presentation is published here, in a modified form, for this special issue of African Journal of Herpetology (Poynton 2013). Other papers on the main themes of John's research are also included in this issue, which include biogeography (Loader et al. 2013; Schreiner et al. 2013), taxonomy (Cruz et al. 2013) and morphology (Wilkinson et al. 2013).

Based on morphology there are currently three described East African species of torrent frogs belonging to the tropical African genus Petropedetes (P. dutoiti P. martiennseni and P. yakusini). Taxonomic uncertainties are evident within this group: a putative new species reported from the Nguru Mountains and the species P. yakusini have a fragmented distribution across the Southern Tanzanian highlands. We conducted a molecular systematic study sampling populations of East African petropedetids occurring in the mountains of Tanzania (P. martiennseni and P. yakusini) to investigate species boundaries and biogeography. Data provide evidence for the recognition of well defined genetically distinct populations occurring in each mountain fragment (for P. yakusini) and further support for a new undescribed species from the Nguru Mountains. We examine phylogenetic patterns in relation to the biogeographic history of the region. © 2013 Herpetological Association of Africa.

The new generic taxon Calyptomastix is proposed to accommodate the type species Odontopyge kakandae Kraus, 1958, and, tentatively, Odontopyge dorsalis Carl, 1909, Haplothysanus leviceps Attems, 1909, and Spirostreptus pardalis Gerstacker, 1873, all from Tanzania. This genus is defined by the broad basal separation of the male genitalia, the elongated basal whorl (torsion) of the gonopod telopodite, and the concealment of the solenomere within apical folds of the telopodite.

Reptiles of Katavi National Park, western Tanzania, are from different biomes Tim Caro*, Owen ‘Squack’ Evans, Emily Fitzherbert, Toby A. Gardner, Kim Howell, Robert Drewes and H. Bradley Shaffer Center for Population Biology and Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A., Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, PO Box 661, Arusha, Tanzania, PO Box 345, Usa River, Tanzania, Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, U.K., Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, PO Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, California Academy of Sciences, 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, CA 94118, U.S.A. and Center for Population Biology and Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A.

Biodiversity surveys and the compilation of indigenous knowledge were conducted in eight previously unstudied proposed and already gazetted Forest Reserves of Mtwara Region, south-eastern Tanzania, from April to August of 2005. The results indicate relatively low biodiversity and endemism values in these forests, and high levels of forest disturbance. In most areas the original vegetation has been converted by clearance for cultivation and by fire, and has regenerated into degraded forms of Swahilian/Coastal Mixed Dry Forest, Swahilian/Coastal Brachystegia Forest and floristically impoverished Zambezian-Swahilian Brachystegia Woodland. Some Coastal Forest endemic and threatened species, however, occur in the degraded forest patches, such as east coast akalat Sheppardia gunningi, Reichenow’s batis Batis mixta reichenowi, spotted flat-lizard Platysaurus maculatus, woodland toad Mertensophryne micranotis and the shrub Gardenia transvenulosa. The low proportion of endemic and threatened species recorded implies that these forests are of modest biological importance within the context of the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests Biodiversity Hotspot. Nevertheless, local inhabitants depend heavily on the long-term availability of timber and non-timber resources and water and soil regulation services from these forests. The development and implementation of effective natural resourcemanagement is therefore urgently needed in this area.Keywords: coastal forest mosaic, biodiversity hotspot, biodiversity survey, forestdisturbance, species checklist, East Africa

An egg clutch of the Tanzanian brevicipitid frog, Probreviceps m. macrodactylus, is described for the first time. The single clutch consists of 32 eggs and 21 infertile, jelly-filled capsules, tightly bound together by a thin, tough outer layer. The infertile capsules are concentrated toward the top of the clutch. The eggs were found in a dry season, and were perhaps likely to hatch at the onset of the short rains. The specific identification is confirmed through analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Eggs are yolky and large, about 8 mm in diameter (including capsule), suggesting that P. m. macrodactylus has a direct mode of development. The embryos observed were in an early developmental stage and showed the early division of the brain and anlagen of three pairs of visceral arches. Brevicipitid reproduction and development are poorly known, but a review of the existing literature and parsimonious optimization of simple characters onto a phylogenetic framework suggest that direct developme...

We present data on sample richness, relative abundance, and community structure of a leaf litter amphibian assemblage from globally important miombo-mopane woodlands characteristic of western Tanzania. We describe patterns of diversity across major habitat types and between different seasons from an annual pitfall-trapping campaign. We recorded 28 species of amphibians, which is significantly higher than existing richness estimates for other miombo woodland sites elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa. We found that cultivation of native habitat reduces frog diversity, a conclusion that has important implications in light of the rapid conversion of miombo woodland for agriculture and fuel-wood across much of southern and central Africa. Many species showed strongly ansynchronized patterns of seasonality in relative abundance, which has significant implications for the establishment of successful monitoring programs and biodiversity surveys. These conclusions emphasize the importance of stratified long-term sampling in biodiversity studies and demonstrate that superficial levels of sampling effort can lead to erroneous conclusions regarding patterns of diversity in amphibian communities. The relatively poor focus on herpetofaunal research in African miombo-mopane woodland is out of proportion to its ecological and conservation significance.

The Eastern Arc Mountains are renown in Africa for high concentrations of endemic species of animals and plants. Thirteen separate mountain blocks comprise the Eastern Arc, supporting around 3300 km2 of sub-montane, montane and upper montane forest, less than 30% of the estimated original forested area. At least 96 vertebrate species are endemic, split as follows: 10 mammal, 19 bird, 29 reptile and 38 amphibian species. This includes four endemic or nearly endemic species of primate – the Sanje Mangabey, the Iringa Red Colobus, the Mountain Galago and the new Kipunji monkey that forms its own monotypic genus. A further 71 vertebrate species are near-endemic. At least 800 vascular plant species are endemic, almost 10% of these being trees. These endemics include the majority of the species of African violet –Saintpaulia, a well-known flowering plant in Western households. An additional 32 species of bryophytes are also endemic. Many hundreds of invertebrates are also likely to be endemic, with data for butterflies, millipedes and dragonflies indicating potential trends in importance. Seventy-one of the endemic or near-endemic vertebrates are threatened by extinction (8 critical, 27 endangered, 36 vulnerable), with an additional seven wide ranging threatened species. Hundreds of plant species are also threatened. Most Eastern Arc endemics are closed-forest specialists and comprise taxa with an ancient history and those of more recent origin, including some possessing ancient affinities with taxa from West Africa, Madagascar, and even South America and Southeast Asia. Mountain block prioritisation for biodiversity conservation shows that Udzungwas, East Usambaras and Ulugurus are the most important blocks, with other important blocks being the Ngurus and West Usambaras. Rankings are correlated closely with the area of remaining forest. Most of the remaining forest is found within nearly 150 Government Forest Reserves, with 106 of these managed nationally for water catchment, biodiversity and soil conservation and where forest exploitation is not allowed. Outside these areas most forest has been cleared, except in small village burial/sacred sites, a few Village Forest Reserves, and inaccessible areas. In most Eastern Arc Mountains the local populations have not encroached beyond the reserve boundaries to develop farms, but forest resources within the boundaries are used for fuel and building materials and some forests are heavily degraded. Fire is also a problem as it enters and destroys forests during the dry seasons. The future of the biodiversity on the Eastern Arc Mountains is closely tied to management policies and capacity of the Tanzania Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Tanzania National Parks Authority, and Kenya Forest Department. Supporting these agencies in their mandated job is an essential conservation investment over the longer term.

A new species of Kassina is described from Unguja Island, Zanzibar, East Africa. It is distinguished from other species in its genus by an advertisement call that is pulsed, frequency modulated, and with a longer duration than that of K. senegalensis or K. maculata, and its grey and white reticulated colour pattern. The gular strap, like that in K. senegalensis, is continuous with the thick, pleated skin of the vocal pouch, but unlike K. senegalensis, it is rounded and truncated posteriorly. In contrast, the gular gland of K. maculata is rounded and free at its posterior end. The finger and toe tips are not distinct disks, but are only very slightly rounded and truncated when viewed from above. In lateral view, the tips are noticeably flattened.

The small mammals of Kwamgumi Forest Reserve, a habitat representing transition between coastal and Eastern Arc forest types, and one of the lower forest reserves of the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, were sampled to gain a preliminary perspective on the diversity and abundance of the shrews, bats and rodents of this unique forest. While the species documented are reminiscent of those found at higher elevations in the East and West Usambara Mountains, the abundance of shrews and rodents, based on trap success, was much lower than in the montane forests of the Eastern Arc Mountains.

German explorers and scientists began the study and description of the East African amphibian fauna. Later, Arthur Loveridge played a leading role in collecting, describing and analysing the East African amphibian fauna; his 1957 checklist for the region is still the only one available. Since independence in the early 1960s, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda developed different degrees of capability to conduct research on amphibians. While globally there has been a recent upsurge in research and concern over declining amphibian populations and a general increase in awareness of the importance of amphibian biodiversity, in the East African region this interest has not always been so apparent. Limitations to amphibian study in East Africa include a lack of basic taxonomic studies, field guides and keys to the amphibian fauna, few natural history museums, and a dearth of basic information about the distribution and biology of amphibians. There is a need to determine the conservation status of East African amphibians, encourage studies on basic biology and populations, and to include amphibians in development and conservation policies and agendas.

The giant forest hog, Hylochoerus meinertzhageni, is distributed across the West African forest belt and into eastern Africa. It is known from Uganda and is reasonably common in suitable habitat in Kenya. Evidence suggests that a taxon described from a photograph as Hylochoerus schulzi Zukowsky 1921 from the Mutjek Mountains in northern Tanzania along the western Rift Valley wall is in fact a bushpig, Potamochoerus larvatus. Previously published records of the giant forest hog in Tanzania are discussed and shown to be non-definitive; the need for a specimen or unambiguous photographic record of H. meinertzhageni from Tanzania still exists.

The Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM) contain some of the most biologically diverse and endemic-rich montane ecosystems in all of Africa. Because of the staggering degree of biodiversity, how little we know about the biota of the EAM and the rapid degradation of the remaining montane forests of these mountains, we are studying the natural history and biogeography of the small mammals (shrews and rodents) of this archipelago. We are also interested in specific questions such as the effects of forest fragmentation on and elevational distribution of EAM small mammals. To date we have surveyed the South Pare, East Usambara, West Usambara, Nguru, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains. We have documented a rodent fauna that is widespread across the archipelago, although restricted to montane and submontane habitats. Shrew species are much more patchy in distribution with each EAM or subset of mountains holding at least one seemingly endemic species, suggesting that speciation has contributed to the current pattern of species richness in insectivores. However, further analysis is required to discern how dispersal, extinctions and/or speciation have contributed to this pattern. Importantly, we have found very few introduced, exotic or savannah dwelling species in our surveys of undisturbed forests, even in forests in close proximity to disturbed areas or human habitation. Journal of East African Natural History Vol. 87 (1&2) 1998: pp. 91-100

A new species of the Tanzanian ovoviviparous dwarf toad Nectophrynoides is described from the Kihansi River Gorge in the Udzungwa Mountains, and a key to the genus provided. The new species, currently known only from small patches of spray-dependent wetland vegetation associated with Kihansi Gorge waterfalls, is probably the most vulnerable member of this genus on account of the Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project which is due to go on-line in 1999. This project will significantly reduce the river flow into the gorge and consequently the amount of spray that maintains a unique plant and animal community. Measures are suggested for improving chances of long-term survival of the species.

The recent collection of 13 specimens of the Tanzanian endemic Adenorhinos barbouri more than doubles the number of known specimens of this rare viper. Internal and external characters were examined in the older and the more recently collected specimens and character variation has been summarized. Based on limited information from collectors' notes and dissection of the alimentary canal, A. barbouri appears to be a species of the forest floor; both juveniles and adults prey on earth-worms and adults may also feed on anurans.

Abstract Variation in external and internal characters of the endemic Tanzanian species Geodipsas vauerocegae and G. procterae have been examined. On the basis of the small sample sizes, no significant geographical differences can be demonstrated. Three recently collected specimens from the Udzungwa Mountains, however, seem to have slightly lower numbers of ventrals than those from the Uluguru Mountains. All available knowledge on the natural history of the species has been summarized.

A new species of arboreal forest viper (Serpentes: Viperidae: Atheris) from a forest fragment in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania is described and named Atheris matildae sp. nov. The species resembles the forest horned viper, Atheris ceratophora Werner, by bearing horn-like supraciliary scales but it differs in size, body proportions, scalation, scale ultrastructure, and distribution. Genetic divergence is also assessed and the two species have an estimated divergence time of approximately 2.2 million years. An overview of the genus Atheris in Tanzania, including new distribution data, is presented and the conservation status of the new taxon is discussed.

Small mammals were surveyed in the lowland forest of the Gonja Forest Reserve of north-eastern Tanzania. In 565 trap-nights 10 rodents (three species) were captured. In 12.5 net hours 27 bats (11 species) were netted. Comparisons of similar surveys in nearby montane forests indicate a lower density and diversity of rodents and shrews in Gonja than in higher elevation habitats. Information is presented on external measurements, weight and reproductive condition of the specimens collected. Journal of East African Natural History Vol. 89 (1&2) 2000: pp. 73-83

From 1993 to 2000, observations were made of small to medium-sized mammals in seven poorly known submontane forest reserves and one village forest in the North Pare, South Pare, East Usambara and Nguu Mountains, Tanzania. Of 26 species recorded, three are Red-Listed as Threatened (Endangered: Zanj elephant shrew Rhynchocyon petersi; Vulnerable: red-bellied coast squirrel Paraxerus palliates, and eastern tree hyrax Dendrohyrax validus) and five as Lower Risk (two dwarf galagos Galagoides spp., African buffalo Syncerus caffer, suni Neotragus moschatus, and Harvey's duiker Cephalophus harveyi). Most of our mammal records represent new distributions in the Eastern Arc Mountains, and one record of an unidentified squirrel in the Nguu Mountains is of conservation interest. Together with timber removal and cultivation, hunting appears to threaten the survival of mammals in these forests. There is an urgent need to establish long-term conservation programmes in these forests and more thorough surveys of mammals are necessary. Journal of East African Natural History Vol. 94(1) 2005: 175-189

Ambangulu Forest is one of the few remaining tracts of natural forest between 800 and 1200 m in the West Usambara Mountains of Tanzania. It may be the biologically richest area in the region but it is threatened by illegal felling of timber trees, wind damage, grazing and browsing livestock, and collection of fuel-wood and building poles. A proposed project aims to protect the forest and benefit local people at the same time.

Stopping further global losses of amphibian populations and species requires an unprecedented conservation response.

The recent collecting of five specimens of Atheris ceratophorus WERNER, 1895, together with an examination of material already deposited in various museums documents new records outside the Usambara Mountains to which the species had been believed to be endemic. Lepidosis and hemipenial characters have been investigated and tabulated to give an impression of the intraspecific variation. The data of the new specimens provide some information on the natural history of this species. The validity of A. nitschei rungweensis is discussed and a probable new record is given.

A simple, straightforward, cartographic modelling technique is presented for measuring relations between environmental characteristics and rare species distribution patterns. This approach is corroborated by digitizing rare bird distribution data for Tanzania and statistically analyzing these patterns in relation to geographic and environmental variables. Of the available natural resource data for Africa, only the vegetation and soils data appeared accurate enough to represent regional natural resource distribution patterns. Available data for Tanzania at the regional scale is not currently precise or comprehensive enough to analyze ongoing dynamic ecological processes. Statistical relations, associated with a study quadrangle within Tanzania, are documented for these parameters. Final confirmation of the accuracy of predictions about rare species diversity patterns will ensue from future field observations. When confirmed, this methodology can be used for setting conservation priorities in biologically little known regions of the world.

A new species of moderate-sized Phrynobatrachus from the forests of the Uzungwe and Uluguru Mountains of southcentral Tanzania is described. It is distinguished by having dorsal asperities in both sexes and by a reddish-orange colouration on its digits and arms, this colour sometimes extending to the shoulders. The adult male lacks femoral glands and gular folds. Comparisons are made with other East African Phrynobatrachus species.

Abstract The tadpoles of three poorly known endemic frog species from the forested mountains of the Republic of Tanzania are described: Arthroleptides martiensseni (Anura: Ranidae), Afrixalus uluguruensis (Hyperoliidae) and Leptopelis vermiculatus (Hyperoliidae). Natural history observations are included where possible.

Summary The histology of the neck ‘glandular’ skin patch has been examined in three Pteropodid bat species, Eidolon helvum. Rousettus aegyptiacus and R. angolensis. In E. helvum the neck skin patch contains a large sebaceous gland complex, which is better developed and more active in males than in females. A comparable area in R. aegyptiacus contains rather non-specialized sebaceous gland alveoli in association with hair follicles and which are more active in males than in females. In R. angolensis the brush-like hair of the neck skin patch is much longer and coarser in the male than in the female, but in neither sex was the skin patch glandular. On the basis of histological observations, the neck skin patch in E. helvum would appear to be important for scent emission while in R. aegyptiacus. the same structure would be less so. In R. angolensis, the neck skin patch, though covered by longer brush-like hair than in other species, contained almost no glandular tissue and perhaps functions to provide visual rather than olfactory behavioural cues. Resume L'histologie des regions cervicales de peau ‘glandulaire’ a ete examinee chez trois especes de chauve-souris Pteropodides (Eidolon helvum, Rousettus aegyptiacus et R. angolensis). Chez E. helvum, cette region contient une grande glande sebacee complexe mieux developpee et plus active chez les mâles que chez les femelles. Chez R. aegyptiacus, cette meme region contient des alveoles d'une glande sebacee assez peu specialisee, associees a des follicules pileux, qui est plus active chez les mâles que chez les femelles. Chez R. angolensis, la fourrure herissee de la region cervicale est plus longue et plus raide chez le mâle que chez la femelle, mais la peau n'est glandulaire chez aucun des deux sexes. Sur la base d'observations histologiques, la region cervicale de la peau chez E. helvum semble responsable de l'emission d'odeur alors que chez R. aegyptiacus, la meme structure l'est a un degre moindre. Chez R. angolensis, bien que couverte par des poils plus longs et herisses que chez les autres especes, la region cervicale de peau ne contient presque pas de tissu glandulaire et fonctionne peut-etre pour fournir des indications comportementales plus visuelles qu'olfactives.

The phylogenetic relationships of microhylid frogs are poorly understood. The first molecular phylogeny for continental African microhylids is presented, including representatives of all subfamilies, six of the eight genera, and the enigmatic hemisotid Hemisus. Mitochondrial 12S and 16S rRNA sequence data were analysed using parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian methods. Analyses of the data are consistent with the monophyly of all sampled subfamilies and genera. Hemisus does not nest within either brevicipitines or non-brevicipitines. It is possibly the sister group to brevicipitines, in which case brevicipitines might not be microhylids. Phrynomantis and Hoplophryne potentially group with non-African, non-brevicipitine microhylids, in agreement with recent morphological and molecular data. Within brevicipitines, Breviceps is recovered as the sister group to a clade of Callulina+Spelaeophryne+Probreviceps. The relationships among the genera within this latter clade are unclear, being sensitive to the method of analysis. Optimal trees suggest the Probreviceps macrodactylus subspecies complex might be paraphyletic with respect to P. uluguruensis, corroborating preliminary morphological studies indicating that P. m. rungwensis may be a distinct species. P. m. loveridgei may be paraphyletic with respect to P. m. macrodactylus, though this is not strongly supported. Some biogeographic hypotheses are examined in light of these findings. r 2004 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.