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The UVB irradiation of DNA labeled with 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) leads to single-strand breaks (SSBs) as a major photochemical damage. Some time ago, we demonstrated that SSB is a secondary damage forming due to thermal dissociation of 2'-deoxyribonolactone generated photochemically in DNA labeled with BrdU. For the first time, we study here the variation of the yield of UVB generated SSBs with the alteration of 3'-neighbor nucleobase of electron donor (2'-deoxyguanine (dG)) and acceptor (excited BrdU) in double-stranded DNA. We showed that the experimental damage yields can be explained by the calculated ionization potentials of dG and electron affinities of excited BrdU via a kinetic scheme based on the Marcus model of electron transfer (ET). Hence, our studies on the sequence dependence of photochemical damage in DNA labeled with BrdU constitute a further argument that photochemically generated SSBs occur as a result of long-range ET.

The sensitizing propensity of radio-/photosensitizing nucleoside depends on DNA sequence surrounding a sensitizer. Therefore, in order to compare sensitizers with regard to their ability to induce a DNA damage one has to study the sequence dependence of damage yield. However, chemical synthesis of oligonucleotides labeled with sensitizing nucleosides is hindered due to the fact that a limited number of such nucleoside phosphoramidites are accessible. Here, we report on a chemically-enzymatic method, employing a DNA polymerase and ligase, that enables a modified nucleoside, in the form of its 5′-triphosphate, to be incorporated into DNA fragment in a pre-determined site. Using such a protocol two double-stranded DNA fragments – a long one, 75 base pairs (bp), and a short one, 30 bp in length – were pin-point labeled with 5-bromodeoxyuridine. Four DNA polymerases together with DHPLC for the inspection of reaction progress were used to optimize the process under consideration. As an ultimate test showing that the product possessing an assumed nucleotide sequence was actually obtained, we irradiated the synthesized oligonucleotide with UVB photons and analyzed its photoreactivity with the LC-MS method. Our results prove that a general approach enabling precise labeling of DNA with any nucleoside modification processed by DNA polymerase and ligase has been worked out.

Real-time PCR (qPCR) – a modern methodology primarily used for studying gene expression has been employed for the quantitative assay of an important class of DNA damage – single strand breaks. These DNA lesions which may lead to highly cytotoxic double strand breaks were quantified in a model system where double stranded DNA was sensitized to UV photons by labeling with 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine. The amount of breaks formed due to irradiation with several doses of 320 nm photons was assayed by two independent methods: LC–MS and qPCR. A very good agreement between the relative damage measured by the two completely different analytical tools proves the applicability of qPCR for the quantitative analysis of SSBs. Our results suggest that the popularity of the hitherto underestimated though accurate and site-specific technique of real-time PCR may increase in future DNA damage studies.

The radiolysis of deoxygenated aqueous solution containing trimeric oligonucleotides labelled with iodinated pyrimidines and Tris-HCl as the hydroxyl radical scavenger leads to electron attachment to the halogenated bases that mainly results in single strand breaks. The iodinated trimers are 2-fold more sensitive to solvated electrons than the brominated oligonucleotides, which is explained by the barrier-free dissociation of the iodinated base anions. The present study fills the literature gap concerning the chemistry triggered by ionizing radiation in the iodinated pyrimidines incorporated into DNA.

The TYT and TXT trimeric oligonucleotides, where X stands for a native nucleobase, T (thymine), C (cytosine), A (adenine), or G (guanine), and Y indicates a brominated analogue of the former, were irradiated with ionizing radiation generated by a (60)Co source in aqueous solutions containing Tris as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. In the past, these oligomers were bombarded with low energy electrons under an ultra-high vacuum and significant damage to TXT trimers was observed. However, in aqueous solution, hydrated electrons do not produce serious damage to TXT trimers although the employed radiation dose exceeded many times the doses used in radiotherapy. Thus, our studies demonstrate unequivocally that hydrated electrons, which are the major form of electrons generated during radiotherapy, are a negligible factor in damage to native DNA. It was also demonstrated that all the studied brominated nucleobases have a potential to sensitize DNA under hypoxic conditions. Strand breaks, abasic sites and the products of hydroxyl radical attachment to nucleobases have been identified by HPLC and LC-MS methods. Although all the bromonucleobases lead to DNA damage under the experimental conditions of the present work, bromopyrimidines seem to be the radiosensitizers of choice since they lead to more strand breaks than bromopurines.

Hypoxia--a hallmark of solid tumors--makes hypoxic cells radioresistant. On the other hand, DNA, the main target of anticancer therapy, is not sensitive to the near UV photons and hydrated electrons, one of the major products of water radiolysis under hypoxic conditions. A possible way to overcome these obstacles to the efficient radio- and photodynamic therapy of cancer is to sensitize the cellular DNA to electrons and/or ultraviolet radiation. While incorporated into genomic DNA, modified nucleosides, 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine in particular, sensitize cells to both near-ultraviolet photons and γ rays. It is believed that, in both sensitization modes, the reactive nucleobase radical is formed as a primary product which swiftly stabilizes, leading to serious DNA damage, like strand breaks or cross-links. However, despite the apparent similarity, such radio- and photosensitization of DNA seems to be ruled by fundamentally different mechanisms. In this review, we demonstrate that the most important factors deciding on radiodamage to the labeled DNA are (i) the electron affinity (EA) of modified nucleoside (mNZ), (ii) the local surroundings of the label that significantly influences the EA of mNZ, and (iii) the strength of the chemical bond holding together the substituent and a nucleobase. On the other hand, we show that the UV damage to sensitized DNA is governed by long-range photoinduced electron transfer, the efficiency of which is controlled by local DNA sequences. A critical review of the literature mechanisms concerning both types of damage to the labeled biopolymer is presented. Ultimately, the perspectives of studies on DNA sensitization in the context of cancer therapy are discussed.