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Worldwide, foodborne illness is a significant public health issue in both developed and developing countries. Salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and shigellosis are common foodborne gastrointestinal illnesses caused by the bacteria Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Shigella spp. respectively. These zoonotic diseases are frequently linked to eggs and poultry products. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of these pathogens in Australian backyard poultry flocks and to determine risk factors for these pathogens. Poultry faeces samples were collected from 82 backyards and screened for Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Shigella spp. using qPCR. A questionnaire was administered to the backyard poultry owners to assess their knowledge regarding management of poultry and eggs and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to the presence of zoonotic pathogens in the flocks. One composite faecal sample was collected from each backyard (82 samples). Composite sampling here means taking one or more grab samples from a backyard to make up approximately 10 grams. Four per cent of samples, that is 4% backyards tested, were positive for Salmonella spp., 10% were positive for Campylobacter spp. and none were positive for Shigella spp. A higher infection rate was seen in multi-aged flocks (24%) compared with the single-aged flocks (3%). The survey found that many participants were engaging in risky food safety behaviours with 46% of participants responding that they washed their eggs with running water or still water instead of wiping the dirt off with a damp cloth to clean the eggs and 19% stored their eggs at room temperature. This study demonstrated that backyard poultry may pose a potential risk for salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis. Additionally, Australian public health and food safety regulations should be modified and effectively implemented to address the risks associated with backyard poultry husbandry.

The popularity of tattooing has increased significantly over recent years. This has raised concerns about the safety of tattoo inks and their metabolites/degradation products. The photolytic and metabolic degradation of tattoo pigments may result in the formation of toxic compounds, with unforeseen health risks. A systematic literature review was undertaken to determine the current state of knowledge of tattoo pigments' degradation products when irradiated with sunlight, laser light or metabolised. The review demonstrates that there is a lack of knowledge regarding tattoo pigment degradation/metabolism, with only eleven articles found pertaining to the photolysis of tattoo pigments and two articles on the metabolism of tattoo pigments. The limited research indicates that the photolysis of tattoo pigments could result in many toxic degradation products, including hydrogen cyanide and carcinogenic aromatic amines.

Eggs are a highly nutritious food source used in a wide range of food products. In Australia, eggs are a frequent source of foodborne salmonellosis outbreaks, associated with eggshell contamination with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (ST). Despite their potentially hazardous nature, raw eggs are often used and consumed in mayonnaise, mousse, ice cream and eggnog. The aim of this study was to develop a shell egg decontamination method that removed ST contamination from the outside of an egg without impacting its usability. The decontamination method was developed by the adaptation of a temperature-controlled water bath (commonly present in kitchens and associated with the sous-vide technique) for the surface decontamination of eggs. The outside of whole eggs was artificially inoculated with two ST strains. The eggs were decontaminated by placing in a sous-vide cooker with the water heated to 57°C. The remaining viable ST present on the whole shell egg, crushed shells, internal egg contents and sous-vide water were enumerated over time by culturing onto XLD agar. The quality of the uncontaminated heat-treated eggs was determined by measuring the Haugh unit, yolk index, albumen pH, thermocoagulation, and stability of foam. A blind control study was conducted to assess the acceptability and usability of the treated eggs by chefs and food handlers for the preparation of mayonnaise. Complete decontamination of ST was achieved by treating eggs for 9 min in the sous-vide cooker (57°C). No statistically significant difference was observed in the quality of treated eggs compared with nontreated eggs using the quality measurements and acceptability score from chefs. This method provides a simple approach that can be adopted by chefs and food handlers to obtain safe eggs before the preparation of raw egg products.

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been identified as emerging contaminants of public health concern. With PFAS now detected globally in a wide range of environments, there is an urgent need for effective remedial treatment solutions at the field scale. Phytoremediation presents a potential remediation strategy for PFAS that would allow efficient and cost-effective remediation at large scales. This study examined the potential for the Australian native wetland plant Juncus sarophorus to tolerate, take up, and accumulate PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS. A 190-day glasshouse experiment was conducted, in which 0, 10 and 100 μg/L each of PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS were used to irrigate J. sarophorus in potted soil. The results suggest that J. sarophorus has a high tolerance to PFAS and is effective at accumulating and transferring PFHxS and PFOA from soils to above ground biomass. Together with its high growth rate, J. sarophorus appears to be, in principle, a suitable candidate for phytoextraction of short-chained PFAS compounds. It is, however, less efficient at uptake of PFOS, owing to the long chain-lengths of this compound and PFOSs' ability to sorb effectively to soils. The total accumulated PFAS mass at the end of the experiment was ~2000 μg/kg biota

Food safety inspections are a key health protection measure applied by governments to prevent foodborne illness, yet they remain the subject of sustained criticism. These criticisms include inconsistency and inadequacy of methods applied to inspection, and ineffectiveness in preventing foodborne illness. Investigating the validity of these criticisms represent important areas for further research. However, a defined construct around the meanings society attributes to food safety inspection must first be established. Through critical examination of available literature, this review identified meanings attributed to food safety inspection and explicates some of the key elements that compose food safety inspection as a social construct. A total of 18 meanings were found to be attributed to food safety inspection. Variation in meanings were found between consumers, food business associates and food safety inspectors. For some, inspection meant a source of assurance, for others a threat to fairness, while most view inspection as a product of resources and inspector training. The meanings were then examined in light of common criticisms directed at food safety inspection, to expound their influence in how food safety inspection is realized, shaped, and rationalized. This review highlights the influence of sociological factors in defining food safety inspection.

To better protect public health from third-hand exposure to methamphetamine, it is important to understand the techniques and current practices used within the methamphetamine testing and decontamination industry in Australia. A survey was conducted focusing on business owners that advertised testing and/or remediation services online. They were also invited to participate in a follow-up phone interview upon completion. The survey demonstrated that testing and decontamination methods were highly varied, which was expected for an industry with no regulation. Most companies offered methamphetamine testing and remediation which could be a conflict of interest. Participants also shared personal experiences, including the conduct of other industry members, demonstrating both poor practice and/or the competitive nature of the business. Participating business owners were following Australian guidelines to the best of their ability, and many are advocates for regulation to be implemented within the industry. This would address the inconsistencies between companies and establish trust for industry members and the public. It would also provide significant public health protection, which is currently lacking. A more consistent approach to the testing and remediation of methamphetamine contamination, aided by regulation, would address the significant risk to public health caused by third-hand exposure to methamphetamine.

BACKGROUND Conducting effective and culturally sensitive dog health education programs in Aboriginal communities requires an understanding of appropriate adult education and community development principles. Finding relevant material can be difficult, given that many of the available resources are in the 'grey literature'. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To critically review publications addressing the principles governing dog health education in remote Aboriginal communities. METHODS A critical review was performed by searching English language peer-reviewed and grey literature databases for papers published between 2010 and 2018. Besides a small number of peer-reviewed papers, there was an extensive list of reports, educational material, guidelines and posters and pamphlets that illustrated the principles. Only a small amount of this grey literature was selected for the review. Selection was based on the publication illustrating a specific principle of dog health education. The material was organised around educational themes highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of these publications. RESULTS Findings suggested that although relevant literature is scattered, there are clear processes for conducting culturally appropriate and effective dog health programs in Australian Indigenous communities. Two major principles were identified: acknowledging the effect on education of the ambiguity around the status of dogs in Aboriginal communities, and embedding programs within a social determinant of health framework or community development approach. These two principles provide guidance on negotiating educational sessions, the preparation of culturally appropriate materials, teaching sessions and what learning styles to foster and the use of a health promotion approach. CONCLUSIONS Some contradictions exist within the literature, particularly around the use of images, and consistent with the first principle, a hesitancy to engage with Aboriginal people around the issue of dog health.

Strongyloidiasis and HTLV-I (human T-lymphotropic virus-1) are important infections that are endemic in many countries around the world with an estimated 370 million infected with Strongyloides stercoralis alone, and 5-10 million with HTVL-I. Co-infections with these pathogens are associated with significant morbidity and can be fatal. HTLV-I infects T-cells thus causing dysregulation of the immune system which has been linked to dissemination and hyperinfection of S. stercoralis leading to bacterial sepsis which can result in death. Both of these pathogens are endemic in Australia primarily in remote communities in Queensland, the Northern Territory, and Western Australia. Other cases in Australia have occurred in immigrants and refugees, returned travellers, and Australian Defence Force personnel. HTLV-I infection is lifelong with no known cure. Strongyloidiasis is a long-term chronic disease that can remain latent for decades, as shown by infections diagnosed in prisoners of war from World War II and the Vietnam War testing positive decades after they returned from these conflicts. This review aims to shed light on concomitant infections of HTLV-I with S. stercoralis primarily in Australia but in the global context as well.

Legionella is an opportunistic waterborne pathogen associated with Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever. Despite improved public awareness, the incidence of Legionella associated infections has been increasing. Aerosols generated from engineered potable water systems are a demonstrated cause of both nosocomial and community-acquired legionellosis. The ecology of Legionella in these systems is complex with multiple factors impacting their colonization and persistence. Flow dynamics has been identified as an important factor and stagnation in cooling towers is an accepted risk for increased Legionella growth; however, less is known about the impact of flow dynamic on Legionella in potable water systems. This is especially complex due to the inherent intermittent and variable usage observed within outlets of a potable water system. This systematic literature review examines the role of fluid dynamics and stagnation on the colonization and growth of Legionella in potable water systems. Twenty two of 24 identified studies show a positive association between stagnation zones and increased colonization of Legionella. These zones included dead legs, dead ends, storage tanks, and obstructed water flow (such as intermittent usage or flow restriction). Prolonged stagnation in building plumbing systems also deteriorates the quality of thermally or chemically treated potable water. This stimulates the colonization of Legionella established biofilms. Such biofilms are intrinsically resistant to disinfection procedures and accelerate the rate of decay of chemical disinfectants. Sub-lethal doses of disinfectants and the presence of protozoan hosts in stationary water promote generation of viable but non-culturable Legionella cells. This results in false negatives in surveillance methods that use culture methodology. In conclusion, elimination of temporal and permanent stagnation points can improve the quality of potable water, efficacy of disinfectants, and reduce the risk of legionellosis. Current guidelines and water safety plans recognize the risks associated with permanent stagnation point (dead ends and dead legs); however, there is a need for greater emphasis on controlling temporal stagnation arising from intermittent usage.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are one of the most common patient complications, affecting 7% of patients in developed countries each year. The rise of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria has been identified as one of the biggest global health challenges, resulting in an estimated 23,000 deaths in the US annually. Environmental reservoirs for AMR bacteria such as bed rails, light switches and doorknobs have been identified in the past and addressed with infection prevention guidelines. However, water and water-related devices are often overlooked as potential sources of HAI outbreaks. This systematic review examines the role of water and water-related devices in the transmission of AMR bacteria responsible for HAIs, discussing common waterborne devices, pathogens, and surveillance strategies. AMR strains of previously described waterborne pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium spp., and Legionella spp. were commonly isolated. However, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae that are not typically associated with water were also isolated. Biofilms were identified as a hot spot for the dissemination of genes responsible for survival functions. A limitation identified was a lack of consistency between environmental screening scope, isolation methodology, and antimicrobial resistance characterization. Broad universal environmental surveillance guidelines must be developed and adopted to monitor AMR pathogens, allowing prediction of future threats before waterborne infection outbreaks occur.

Both Strongyloides stercoralis and hookworms are common soil-transmitted helminths in remote Australian communities. In addition to infecting humans, S. stercoralis and some species of hookworms infect canids and therefore present both environmental and zoonotic sources of transmission to humans. Currently, there is limited information available on the prevalence of hookworms and S. stercoralis infections in dogs living in communities across the Northern Territory in Australia. In this study, 274 dog faecal samples and 11 faecal samples of unknown origin were collected from the environment and directly from animals across 27 remote communities in Northern and Central Australia. Samples were examined using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis for the presence of S. stercoralis and four hookworm species: Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma ceylanicum, Ancylostoma braziliense and Uncinaria stenocephala. The prevalence of S. stercoralis in dogs was found to be 21.9% (60/274). A. caninum was the only hookworm detected in the dog samples, with a prevalence of 31.4% (86/274). This study provides an insight into the prevalence of S. stercoralis and hookworms in dogs and informs future intervention and prevention strategies aimed at controlling these parasites in both dogs and humans. A “One Health” approach is crucial for the prevention of these diseases in Australia.

Current practice for determining the exposure to methamphetamine in contaminated homes relies on the analysis of surface wipe sample to address direct contact exposures. The movement of methamphetamine into the air phase, and the potential for inhalation exposures to occur within residential homes contaminated from former clandestine manufacture or smoking of methamphetamine has been generally poorly characterised and understood. All available risk-based guidelines for determining safe levels of methamphetamine in residential properties do not include any consideration of the inhalation pathway as an exposure route. This study showed that methamphetamine can readily move from contaminated materials in a home into the air phase. This movement of methamphetamine into the air phase provides both an exposure pathway and a mechanism for the transfer of methamphetamine throughout a property. The inhalation exposure pathway has the potential to result in significant intake of methamphetamine, adding to dermal absorption and ingestion exposure routes. Guidelines that are established for the assessment of methamphetamine contaminated properties that ignore inhalation exposures can significantly underestimate exposure and result in guidelines that are not adequately protective of health. This study also demonstrates that sampling methamphetamine in air can be undertaken using commercially available sorption tubes and analytical methods.

Eggs are a highly nutritious food source used in a wide range of food products. In Australia, eggs are a frequent source of foodborne salmonellosis outbreaks, associated with eggshell contamination with

Contamination of residential homes with methamphetamine is an emerging issue of significant concern to public health. Cooking or smoking methamphetamine in a residential property contaminates the house, furnishings and personal possessions within it, with subsequent exposure through ingestion, dermal absorption and/or inhalation causing adverse health effects. Current guidelines identifying levels of methamphetamine contamination that require remediation vary between countries. There is also no international standard protocol for measuring levels of contamination and research has shown that different materials give rise to different recovery rates of methamphetamine. There are a number of currently used remediation methods; however, they have varying levels of success with limited studies comparing their long-term efficacies. Most importantly, there are few guidelines available that are based on a transparent, health risk-based approach, and there are many uncertainties on exposures and health effects, making it difficult to ensure the health of people residing in homes that have been used to cook or smoke methamphetamine are sufficiently protected. This manuscript presents the current state of knowledge regarding the contamination of residential homes with methamphetamine and identifies the current gaps in knowledge and priority areas for future research. The current regulatory approach to public health protection associated with exposure to residential premises contaminated with methamphetamine in Australia, New Zealand and the USA is also discussed.

Using roof harvested rainwater held in domestic rainwater tanks is a common practice in Australia, particularly in rural areas. This rainwater might become contaminated with ash and other contaminants during or after a bushfire. Current advice from Australian Health Departments can include the recommendation that landholders drain their tanks after a bushfire, which can cause additional distress to landholders who have already been through a traumatic event. This study created artificially contaminated water, spiked with chemicals likely to be associated with bushfires, including chromated copper arsenate-treated timber ash and firefighting foam to determine the possibility of contamination. The authors also tested two readily available filter systems and found that they removed some but not all contaminants. The artificially created contaminated water fell within guidelines for nonpotable uses such as irrigation and stock watering. This suggests that advice to landholders should be that tank water following a bushfire is likely to be safe for use for purposes apart from drinking. Landholders should be encouraged to retain and use their water for recovery purposes, but not for potable use.

Whiley, H.; Austin, J.; da Silva, G.M., and Ross, K., 2018. Faecal indicator bacteria present in sand at South Port Beach, South Australia. Research has demonstrated that bacterial pathogens present in beach sand may be a risk to human health. The indicator species enterococci, total coliforms, and Escherichia coli were measured in beach sand collected from South Port Beach, South Australia, a popular recreational beach. Samples were collected from five distances from the low tide mark (low tide, 10 m, 20 m, 30 m, and 40 m), at three depths (surface, 10 cm down, and 30 cm down), and at five sampling times over a 3-month period. During this time there was a storm that resulted in significant movement of sand from the beach and high flow of the nearby river, and coincided with increased bacterial load. Within a week the bacterial load had returned to previously measured levels. In general, higher bacterial counts were at the surface level compared with 10 and 30 cm below the surface, and the lower ...

Concerns regarding indoor air quality, particularly the presence of fungi and moulds, are increasing. The potential for essential oils to reduce, control or remove fungi, is gaining interest as they are seen as a “natural” alternative to synthetic chemical fungicides. This review examines published research on essential oils as a method of fungal control in indoor environments. It was difficult to compare the relative performances of essential oils due to differences in research methods and reporting languages. In addition, there are limited studies that scale up laboratory results and assess the efficacy of essential oils within building environments. However, generally, there appears to be some evidence to support the essential oils clove oil, tea tree oil, oregano, thyme and lemon as potential antifungal agents. Essential oils from heartwood, marjoram, cinnamon, lemon basil, caraway, bay tree, fir, peppermint, pine, cedar leaf and manuka were identified in at least one study as having antifungal potential. Future studies should focus on comparing the effectiveness of these essential oils against a large number of fungal isolates from indoor environments. Studies will then need to focus on translating these results into realistic application methods, in actual buildings, and assess the potential for long-term antifungal persistence.

Contamination of domestic dwellings from methamphetamine cooking or smoking is an increasing public health problem in many countries. To evaluate the extent of contamination, sampling generally focusses on the collection of surface wipe samples from walls and other surfaces of a potentially contaminated home. Here, we report the contamination levels of many household materials and items sampled from a home that was suspected to be the premises used to cook methamphetamine, it was then sold, lived in for several years by the new owners and then left unattended for several more years. Although the time since the cooking had taken place was significant (over five years), the levels of contamination were extremely high in both household items that were part of the house when cooking was taking place (blinds, carpets, walls, etc.) and also in articles brought to the house post-cooking (rugs, toys, beds, etc.). Both wipe sampling and analysis of bulk samples indicate that the methamphetamine is not breaking down or being removed and is transferred from contaminated to non-contaminated objects. These results raise questions about the adequacy of characterising contamination and of making decisions about the extent of remediation required based solely on surface wipe samples. Without fully understanding the extent of contamination that is present, not only on surfaces but within the building materials, it is difficult to ensure that the correct and most effective remedial approaches are taken to appropriately determine and address the risks to inhabitants.

Strongyloides spp. are parasitic nematodes that are transmitted through the environment and are capable of causing disease. These nematodes affect an estimated 3−300 million humans worldwide. Identifying the environmental reservoirs of Strongyloides spp. is essential for the development of appropriate control strategies. This systematic literature review examined all published studies that identified Strongyloides stercoralis, Strongyloides fuelleborni, Strongyloides fuelleborni kellyi, and Strongyloides spp. from an environmental source. Most studies detected the nematode from dog and primate fecal samples. Other environmental sources identified were ruminants, cats, rodents, insects, water, soil, as well as fruit and vegetables. Most studies used microscopy-based identification techniques; however, several employed molecular-based techniques, which have become increasingly popular for the detection of Strongyloides spp. A limitation identified was a lack of studies that comprehensively screened all potential environmental samples in a region. Future research should undertake this holistic screening process to identify which environmental reservoirs pose the greatest significance to human health. Potential controls can be identified through the identification of environmental sources. Understanding where Strongyloides spp. is commonly found within the environment of endemic areas will inform environmental control strategies to reduce this neglected disease.

Legionnaires’ disease is a potentially fatal pneumonia like infection caused by inhalation or aspiration of water particles contaminated with pathogenic Legionella spp. Household showers have been identified as a potential source of sporadic, community-acquired Legionnaires’ disease. This study used qPCR to enumerate Legionella spp. and Legionella pneumophila in water samples collected from domestic showers across metropolitan Adelaide, South Australia. A survey was used to identify risk factors associated with contamination and to examine awareness of Legionella control in the home. The hot water temperature was also measured. A total of 74.6% (50/68) and 64.2% (43/68) showers were positive for Legionella spp. and L. pneumophila, respectively. Statistically significant associations were found between Legionella spp. concentration and maximum hot water temperature (p = 0.000), frequency of shower use (p = 0.000) and age of house (p = 0.037). Lower Legionella spp. concentrations were associated with higher hot water temperatures, showers used at least every week and houses less than 5 years old. However, examination of risk factors associated with L. pneumophila found that there were no statistically significant associations (p > 0.05) with L. pneumophila concentrations and temperature, type of hot water system, age of system, age of house or frequency of use. This study demonstrated that domestic showers were frequently colonized by Legionella spp. and L. pneumophila and should be considered a potential source of sporadic Legionnaires’ disease. Increasing hot water temperature and running showers every week to enable water sitting in pipes to be replenished by the municipal water supply were identified as strategies to reduce the risk of Legionella in showers. The lack of public awareness in this study identified the need for public health campaigns to inform vulnerable populations of the steps they can take to reduce the risk of Legionella contamination and exposure.

Background: The New Environmental Health is an approach to environmental health adopted in 1999. The new approach was in response to emerging health risks from the pressures that development placed on the environment, climate change, and increasing vulnerabilities of local communities. The new approach heralded a change in perception and roles within environmental health. Twenty years on, it seems these changes have not been embraced by local government. Methods: To determine whether this was the case, we assessed the use of the term “environmental health” in local government annual reports, and where environmental health functions sit within the organisational structure of councils. Results: We found that the New Environmental Health has not been adopted by councils and environmental health relates solely to the delivery of statutory services and legislative compliance. Conclusions: One result of this is local environmental health practitioners, who constitute the major health protection capability of councils, are defined by the narrow legislative obligations imposed on councils. This represents a significant lost opportunity as public health is not protected in the way that was envisaged with the adoption of the New Environmental Health.

Strongyloides stercoralis is a human parasitic nematode that infects 100–370 million people globally; prevalence comparable to malaria. Currently the primary treatment for strongyloidiasis is the anthelminthic drug, ivermectin. The ruminant variant of S. stercoralis (Strongyloides papillosus) has been shown to be resistant to ivermectin. Efforts to control S. stercoralis therefore must extend beyond clinical treatment. A similar approach to that taken by integrated pest management systems should be taken with this disease, including biological control. Malaria is an example of integrated pest management and multiple biocontrol approaches. The use of nematophagous fungi is widespread in agricultural control of nematodes. A review of the literature demonstrates that nematophagous fungi to control Strongyloides stercoralis could be an effective approach. Here we argue that developing biocontrol methods to control S. stercoralis is important as multiple approaches to complicated diseases creates a more robust approach to disease control.

This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed., Background Farmworkers are at risk of exposure to organophosphate pesticides (OPs). Improvements of knowledge and perceptions about organophosphate (OP) exposure may be of benefit for the reduction in OP exposure. Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an educational intervention to improve knowledge and perceptions for reducing OP exposure among Indonesian and South Australian (SA) migrant farmworkers. Methods This was a quasi-experimental study. The educational intervention used a method of group communication for 30 Indonesian farmworkers and individual communication for seven SA migrant farmworkers. Knowledge and perceptions about OP exposure were measured pre-intervention and 3 months after the intervention. Results Unadjusted intervention effects at follow-up showed statistically significantly improved scores of knowledge (both adverse effects of OPs and self-protection from OP exposure), perceived susceptibility, and perceived barriers among Indonesian farmworkers compared with SA migrant farmworkers. Furthermore, these four significant variables in the unadjusted model and the two other variables (perceived severity and perceived benefits) were statistically significant after being adjusted for the level of education and years working as a farmworker. In contrast, knowledge about adverse effects of OPs was the only variable that was statistically significantly improved among SA migrant farmworkers. The results of this study suggests educational interventions using a method of group communication could be more effective than using individual intervention. Conclusion These improvements provide starting points to change health behavior of farmworkers, particularly to reduce OP exposure, both at the workplace and at home.

[Extract] Strongyloidiasis, caused by the intestinal helminth Strongyloides stercoralis, is commonly found in developing nations in tropical and subtropical regions. Strongyloidiasis was omitted by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the Soil Transmitted Helminths in their Neglected Tropical Diseases Roadmap and can therefore be considered one of the most neglected tropical diseases. Despite its reputation as a disease of developing countries, strongyloidiasis remains an important disease in Australia, particularly for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, and those living in remote communities.

Campylobacter spp. is one of the most widespread infectious diseases of veterinary and public health significance. Globally, the incidence of campylobacteriosis has increased over the last decade in both developing and developed countries. Squamates (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians) are a potential reservoir and source of transmission of campylobacteriosis to humans. This systematic review examined studies from the last 20 years that have reported squamate-associated human campylobacteriosis. It was found that C. fetus subsp. testudinum and C. fetus subsp. fetus were the most common species responsible for human campylobacteriosis from a squamate host. The common squamate hosts identified included bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), green iguana (Iguana iguana), western beaked gecko (Rhynchoedura ornate) and blotched blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua nigrolutea). People with underlying chronic illnesses, the immunocompromised and the elderly were identified as the most vulnerable population. Exposure to pet squamates, wild animals, consumption of reptilian cuisines and cross contamination with untreated water were risk factors associated with Campylobacter infections. Proper hand hygiene practices, responsible pet ownership, ‘One Health’ education and awareness on zoonotic diseases will help reduce the public health risks arising from Campylobacter exposure through squamates. Continued surveillance using molecular diagnostic methods will also enhance detection and response to squamate-linked campylobacteriosis.

In response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, current modeling supports the use of masks in community settings to reduce the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. However, concerns have been raised regarding the global shortage of medical grade masks and the limited evidence on the efficacy of fabric masks. This study used a standard mask testing method (ASTM F2101-14) and a model virus (bacteriophage MS2) to test the viral filtration efficiency (VFE) of fabric masks compared with commercially available disposable, surgical, and N95 masks. Five different types of fabric masks were purchased from the ecommerce website Etsy to represent a range of different fabric mask designs and materials currently available. One mask included a pocket for a filter; which was tested without a filter, with a dried baby wipe, and a section of a vacuum cleaner bag. A sixth fabric mask was also made according to the Victorian Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) guidelines (Australia). Three masks of each type were tested. This study found that all the fabric masks had a VFE of at least 50% when tested against aerosols with an average size of 6.0 µm (VFE(6.0 µm)). The minimum VFE of fabric masks improved (to 63%) when the larger aerosols were excluded to give and average aerosol size of 2.6 µm (VFE(2.6 µm)), which better represents inhaled aerosols that can reach the lower respiratory system. The best performing fabric masks were the cotton mask with a section of vacuum cleaner bag (VFE(6.0 µm) = 99.5%, VFE(2.6 µm) = 98.8%) or a dried baby wipe (VFE(6.0 µm) = 98.5%, VFE(2.6 µm) = 97.6%) in the pocket designed for a disposable filter, the mask made using the Victorian DHHS design (VFE(6.0 µm) = 98.6%, VFE(2.6 µm) =99.1%) and one made from a layer of 100% hemp, a layer of poly membrane, and a layer of cheesecloth (VFE(6.0 µm) = 93.6%, VFE(2.6 µm) = 89.0%). The VFE of two surgical masks (VFE(6.0 µm) = 99.9% and 99.6%, VFE(2.6 µm) = 99.5% and 98.5%) and a N95 masks (VFE(6.0 µm) = 99.9%, VFE(2.6 µm) = 99.3%) were comparable to their advertised bacterial filtration efficacy. This research supports the use of fabric masks in the community to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2; however, future research is needed to explore the optimum design in ensuring proper fit. There is also a need for mass education campaigns to disseminate this information, along with guidelines around the proper usage and washing of fabric masks.

Both Strongyloides stercoralis and hookworms are common soil-transmitted helminths in remote Australian communities. In addition to infecting humans, S. stercoralis and some species of hookworms infect canids and therefore present both environmental and zoonotic sources of transmission to humans. Currently, there is limited information available on the prevalence of hookworms and S. stercoralis infections in dogs living in communities across the Northern Territory in Australia. In this study, 274 dog faecal samples and 11 faecal samples of unknown origin were collected from the environment and directly from animals across 27 remote communities in Northern and Central Australia. Samples were examined using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis for the presence of S. stercoralis and four hookworm species: Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma ceylanicum, Ancylostoma braziliense and Uncinaria stenocephala. The prevalence of S. stercoralis in dogs was found to be 21.9% (60/274). A. caninum was the only hookworm detected in the dog samples, with a prevalence of 31.4% (86/274). This study provides an insight into the prevalence of S. stercoralis and hookworms in dogs and informs future intervention and prevention strategies aimed at controlling these parasites in both dogs and humans. A &ldquo, One Health&rdquo, approach is crucial for the prevention of these diseases in Australia.

Legionella pneumophila is an opportunistic waterborne pathogen of public health concern. It is the causative agent of Legionnaires’ disease (LD) and Pontiac fever and is ubiquitous in manufactured water systems, where protozoan hosts and complex microbial communities provide protection from disinfection procedures. This review collates the literature describing interactions between L. pneumophila and protozoan hosts in hospital and municipal potable water distribution systems. The effectiveness of currently available water disinfection protocols to control L. pneumophila and its protozoan hosts is explored. The studies identified in this systematic literature review demonstrated the failure of common disinfection procedures to achieve long term elimination of L. pneumophila and protozoan hosts from potable water. It has been demonstrated that protozoan hosts facilitate the intracellular replication and packaging of viable L. pneumophila in infectious vesicles; whereas, cyst-forming protozoans provide protection from prolonged environmental stress. Disinfection procedures and protozoan hosts also facilitate biogenesis of viable but non-culturable (VBNC) L. pneumophila which have been shown to be highly resistant to many water disinfection protocols. In conclusion, a better understanding of L. pneumophila-protozoan interactions and the structure of complex microbial biofilms is required for the improved management of L. pneumophila and the prevention of LD.

Raw egg products are often associated with salmonellosis. The Australian guidelines recommend raw egg mayonnaise to be prepared and stored under 5 &deg, C and adjusted to a pH less than 4.6 or 4.2. Despite these guidelines, a significant amount of salmonellosis outbreaks are recorded annually in Australia. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of pH and temperature on the survival of Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) in peptone water (PW) and mayonnaise. The pH of PW and mayonnaise was adjusted to 4.2, 4.4 and 4.6 using acetic acid and vinegar, respectively. The PW and mayonnaise were inoculated with ST and incubated at 37 &deg, C, 23 &deg, C, and 4 &deg, C. The survival of Salmonella was determined using the drop plate method. Survival was significantly (p &lt, 0.05) improved at 4 &deg, C. In both mayonnaise and PW, following 24 h, there was no ST growth at pH 4.2. Resuscitation of ST was rapidly observed at 4 &deg, C while complete inactivation was observed at 37 &deg, C at pH 4.2, 4.4, and 4.6 in both PW and mayonnaise. Lower temperatures protected ST from the bactericidal effect of low pH. &ldquo, The preparation of mayonnaise at pH 4.2 or less and incubating it at room temperature for at least 24 h could reduce the incidence of salmonellosis&rdquo

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited., Rainwater is consumed for drinking water in many parts of Australia, either preferentially over municipal water or in regional or remote areas, because rainwater is the primary source of water. Previous rainwater studies in other areas in Australia have shown the levels of some metals to be above the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG). This study assessed the level of metals in rainwater harvested in the Adelaide region. Water samples were collected from 53 tanks from three different sampling corridors. A total of 365 water samples were analysed for lead, zinc, copper, and cadmium using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In 47 out of the 53 tanks, lead was above the ADWG of 0.01 ppm in at least one sample (with 180/365 samples above 0.01 ppm). Zinc was above the ADWG (3.0 ppm) in 53/365 samples, copper was above the ADWG (2.0 ppm) in eight samples out of 365 samples, and cadmium was above the ADWG (0.002 ppm) in 19 samples out of 365 samples. These data are consistent with other studies of rainwater quality in Australia. Comparisons of levels of metals and volume of rainfall in the sampling and preceding month, roof material, and tank material, the presence of a first-flush device, sampling corridor, and sample pH showed that the roof material was related to higher levels of metals. There was a significant relationship between sampling corridors and the levels of lead and zinc. Nine of the tanks surveyed had filters installed. There was a small, but statistically significant, decrease in the levels of metals that passed through a filter prior to collection but, in those samples, filters did not remove metals to below guideline concentrations. An estimate of exposure, and a brief discussion of health risks as a result of exposure to metals, is presented., This project was funded by the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship (AGRTPS) and supported by the Environmental Health Group, College of Science and Engineering at Flinders University.