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Abstract Background Plastid replacements through secondary endosymbioses include massive transfer of genes from the endosymbiont to the host nucleus and require a new targeting system to enable transport of the plastid-targeted proteins across 3-4 plastid membranes. The dinoflagellates are the only eukaryotic lineage that has been shown to have undergone several plastid replacement events, and this group is thus highly relevant for studying the processes involved in plastid evolution. In this study, we analyzed the phylogenetic origin and N-terminal extensions of plastid-targeted proteins from Lepidodinium chlorophorum, a member of the only dinoflagellate genus that harbors a green secondary plastid rather than the red algal-derived, peridinin-containing plastid usually found in photosynthetic dinoflagellates. Results We sequenced 4,746 randomly picked clones from a L. chlorophorum cDNA library. 22 of the assembled genes were identified as genes encoding proteins functioning in plastids. Some of these were of green algal origin. This confirms that genes have been transferred from the plastid to the host nucleus of L. chlorophorum and indicates that the plastid is fully integrated as an organelle in the host. Other nuclear-encoded plastid-targeted protein genes, however, are clearly not of green algal origin, but have been derived from a number of different algal groups, including dinoflagellates, streptophytes, heterokonts, and red algae. The characteristics of N-terminal plastid-targeting peptides of all of these genes are substantially different from those found in peridinin-containing dinoflagellates and green algae. Conclusions L. chlorophorum expresses plastid-targeted proteins with a range of different origins, which probably arose through endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT) and horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The N-terminal extension of the genes is different from the extensions found in green alga and other dinoflagellates (peridinin- and haptophyte plastids). These modifications have likely enabled the mosaic proteome of L. chlorophorum.

Abstract Background Recent surveys of eukaryote 18S rDNA diversity in marine habitats have uncovered worldwide distribution of the heterotrophic eukaryote phylum Telonemia. Here we investigate the diversity and geographic distribution of Telonemia sequences by in-depth sequencing of several new 18S rDNA clone libraries from both marine and freshwater sites by using a Telonemia-specific PCR strategy. Results In contrast to earlier studies that have employed eukaryote-wide PCR design, we identified a large and unknown diversity of phylotypes and the first rigorous evidence for several freshwater species, altogether comprising 91 unique sequences. Phylogenies of these and publicly available sequences showed 20 statistically supported sub-clades as well as several solitary phylotypes with no clear phylogenetic affiliation. Most of these sub-clades were composed of phylotypes from different geographic regions. Conclusions By using specific PCR primers we reveal a much larger diversity of Telonemia from environmental samples than previously uncovered by eukaryote-wide primers. The new data substantially diminish the geographic structuring of clades identified in earlier studies. Nevertheless, since these clades comprise several distinct phylotypes we cannot exclude endemicity at species level. We identified two freshwater clades and a few solitary phylotypes, implying that Telonemia have colonized freshwater habitats and adapted to the different environmental and ecological conditions at independent occasions.

Clostridium botulinum comprises a diverse group of botulinum toxin-producing anaerobic rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitously distributed in soils and aquatic sediments. Decomposition of plants, algae, and animals creates anaerobic environments that facilitate growth of C. botulinum, which may then enter into food webs leading to intoxication of animals. Via saprophytic utilization of nutrients, the bacteria rapidly sporulate, creating a reservoir of highly robust spores. In the present review, we focus on the occurrence of C. botulinum in non-clinical environments, and examine factors influencing growth and environmental factors associated with botulism outbreaks. We also outline cases involving specific environments and their biota. In wetlands, it has been found that some C. botulinum strains can associate with toxin-unaffected organisms-including algae, plants, and invertebrates-in which the bacteria appear to germinate and stay in the vegetative form for longer periods of time. We suggest the need for future investigations to resolve issues related to the environments in which C. botulinum spores may accumulate and germinate, and where the vegetative forms may multiply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrurus foetidus is a geographically widespread alga commonly detected as 2–10 cm thalli in mountain streams in early spring, and also in lowland rivers at latitudes where seasonal conditions are appropriate for this cold-water species. Reaching macroscopic dimensions but with a pronounced phenotypic plasticity, this species is not typical for the golden algae (Chrysophyceae) – they are almost exclusively microscopic organisms, best known as micro- or nanoplankton in fresh water. Other sessile multicellular members are less conspicuous in nature, and rarely detected and sampled for further investigation. Therefore, the phylogenetic position of Hydrurus within the Chrysophyceae is not clear and has been disputed. We determined the 18S and 28S rDNA subunit sequences from a typical H. foetidus sampled at Finse, Hardangervidda mountain plateau, in south Norway. Phylogenetic trees inferred from concatenated 18S and 28S sequences, including representatives of all known groups of heterokonts, safely confirmed Hydrurus as a chrysophyte. Extending the taxon sampling to include nearly all available 18S chrysophyte sequences from cultured species and environmental DNA, our analysis placed H. foetidus within a separate, well-defined clade (here named the Hydrurus-clade) dominated by environmental sequences and poorly defined strains of chrysophytes in culture, mostly from cold environments. The environmental sequences derived from other mountainous regions showed high similarity and may represent homologous or closely related species. However, the phylogenetic relationship to the closest morphologically described chrysophyte clades remains unresolved. Genetic tools for investigating the Hydrurus complex are now available. An increased sampling of Hydrurus-like heterokont species as well as chrysophytes in general is crucial for understanding the evolution of this lineage and its relations to other chrysophyte clades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on numbering and identifying traces of North American freshwater crayfish plague agent, Aphanomyces (A) astaci, in natural bodies of water. The parasite was detected and studied using Taq-Man minor groove binder real-time polymerase chain reaction, where results stated that the approach identified significant traces of the plague due to the humic acids that were gathered during the study. The study proves that direct observation of A. astaci from water-based environments can enhance breeding and conservation of crayfish.

Background: Plastid replacements through secondary endosymbioses include massive transfer of genes from the endosymbiont to the host nucleus and require a new targeting system to enable transport of the plastid-targeted proteins across 3-4 plastid membranes. The dinoflagellates are the only eukaryotic lineage that has been shown to have undergone several plastid replacement events, and this group is thus highly relevant for studying the processes involved in plastid evolution. In this study, we analyzed the phylogenetic origin and N-terminal extensions of plastid-targeted proteins from Lepidodinium chlorophorum, a member of the only dinoflagellate genus that harbors a green secondary plastid rather than the red algal-derived, peridinin-containing plastid usually found in photosynthetic dinoflagellates. Results: We sequenced 4,746 randomly picked clones from a L. chlorophorum cDNA library. 22 of the assembled genes were identified as genes encoding proteins functioning in plastids. Some of these were of green algal origin. This confirms that genes have been transferred from the plastid to the host nucleus of L. chlorophorum and indicates that the plastid is fully integrated as an organelle in the host. Other nuclear-encoded plastid-targeted protein genes, however, are clearly not of green algal origin, but have been derived from a number of different algal groups, including dinoflagellates, streptophytes, heterokonts, and red algae. The characteristics of N-terminal plastid-targeting peptides of all of these genes are substantially different from those found in peridinin-containing dinoflagellates and green algae. Conclusions: L. chlorophorum expresses plastid-targeted proteins with a range of different origins, which probably arose through endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT) and horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The N-terminal extension of the genes is different from the extensions found in green alga and other dinoflagellates (peridinin- and haptophyte plastids). These modifications have likely enabled the mosaic proteome of L. chlorophorum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Telonemia has recently been described as a new eukaryotic phylum with uncertain evolutionary origin. So far, only two Telonemia species, Telonema subtilis and Telonema antarcticum, have been described, but there are substantial variations in size and morphology among Telonema isolates and field observations, indicating a hidden diversity of Telonemia-like species and populations. In this study, we investigated the diversity and the global distribution of this group by analyzing 18S rDNA sequences from marine environmental clone libraries published in GenBank as well as several unpublished sequences from the Indian Ocean. Phylogenetic analyses of the identified sequences suggest that the Telonemia phylum includes several undescribed 18S rDNA phylotypes, probably corresponding to a number of different species and/or populations. The Telonemia phylotypes form two main groups, here referred to as Telonemia Groups 1 and 2. Some of the closely related sequences originate from separate oceans, indicating worldwide distributions of various Telonemia phylotypes, while other phylotypes seem to have limited geographical distribution. Further investigations of the evolutionary relationships within Telonemia should be conducted on isolated cultures of Telonema-like strains using multi-locus sequencing and morphological data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]