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Typography appears in every aspect of our lives. It is closely intertwined with the representation of information, communication, and our cultural and national identity. Until the invention of computer in printing, only a few typefaces were in use. Then, almost overnight, a flood of new typefaces appeared in different type styles or in their combinations. Nowadays, a vast number of tools is available for designing typefaces, enabling almost anyone to do it. Nevertheless, not every typeface is well designed and useful, i.e. legible. A successful type design requires following the established aesthetic and technical principles. Moreover, it should follow perceptual principles. This study was concerned with evaluating the legibility of various useful typefaces in comparison to a self-designed typeface. The self-designed typeface was not based only on the principles of good legibility. Its design was based also on the paintings by the Slovenian Art Nouveau and later Impressionist painter Matija Jama, whose 150th birthday is celebrated this year. The Impressionist painter’s typeface should not only have the qualities of artistic style, but also be usable, i.e. legible, for a longer text. To determine which type size is optimal for such a text, the test of legibility was conducted. The legibility of the self-designed typeface was analysed along with three other well-known and useful typefaces, i.e., an old style typeface (Minion), a transitional typeface (Bentham) and a sans serif typeface (Gill Sans). The reading speed and number of fixations were analysed using a Tobii 120X eyetracking device. Different texts in all four typefaces in three different type sizes (i.e. 16, 21 and 26 px) were displayed on a 24-inch LCD display. The twenty tested individuals were aged between 19 and 23 years. The results showed that the choice of a particular type size affected the reading speed and legibility. It was also found that for some typefaces, different type sizes, when read, require more fixations. The results of our study show that a self-designed typeface is useful, i.e. legible, at larger type sizes. An appropriate type style and size can improve legibility on displays.

Even though textile labels are not often the subject of research, their quality must not be neglected. Printed typographic elements (i.e. letters and texts) must be visible regardless of textile ribbons and typeface or type size to be printed. Thus, the aim of the research was to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze and evaluate the text printed with flexography in two different typefaces (Helvetica and Verdana) in three different type sizes (4, 6 and 8 point) on five textile ribbons made of polyester and polyester/cotton mixture in two different weaves (plain and satin). The results of our research showed that the quality of printed letters is influenced by the properties of textile ribbons as well as by the chosen typographic features. When textile ribbons were composed of polyester filaments, the quality of prints was better than in the case of the mixed composition with cotton fibers. The coating and previously dyed textile ribbons had a positive influence on the quality of printed letters. The typeface Verdana gave more distinct and contrasted printed letters than Helvetica. The quality of printed letters (measured by the cover factor) decreased with the reduced type size; letters (and text) in a smaller type size (4 point) were hence, depending on the properties of textile ribbons, less visible.

The evolution of high resolution displays, especially liquid crystal displays (LCD), which are among the most commonly used ones, has contributed to a larger number of display readers. Regardless of high resolutions, problems in the legibility of typefaces still occur. Many typefaces may well be readable in print, but cause more difficulties when being read on displays. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of colour contrast on the legibility on LCDs to establish which type style is appropriate for a coloured text to be legible. Two different typefaces specially designed for display use were tested in a satisfactory light-dark contrast of five different colour combinations. The reading speed and fixations were analysed with an eye-tracking device Tobii 120X. Different texts were displayed on an LCD display. The results showed that the selection of a particular colour combination and contrast greatly affects the reading speed and legibility. Less visible colour combinations of text and background were read more slowly than the more contrasting or visible ones in both typefaces. At both typefaces, it was seen that at a slower reading speed, more fixations were needed and vice-versa. A transitional typeface gave a faster reading speed than a sans-serif typeface. An appropriate contrast, colour combination and used typography can facilitate legibility on displays. Doi: 10.28991/esj-2020-01243 Full Text: PDF

The spread of invasive alien plant species (IAPS) is a leading reason for worldwide environmental change due to their effects on biodiversity and humans. Some valued goods from IAPS have been produced, e.g. paper that consists of cellulose fibres from Japanese knotweed. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish the usability of this paper grade as a printing substrate, since it does not have ideal optical properties as it is expected from commercial office paper. Because it is widely used, inkjet printing technology was employed. Print permanence is essential, especially when printing documents. However, typographic characteristics must be considered to make a text more legible. Two widely used typefaces (Arial and Times) were tested in three commonly used type sizes (8 pt, 10 pt, and 12 pt). The results showed that the paper made from Japanese knotweed could have valuable properties and suitable legibility, especially when using typefaces with a moderate counter size, high x-height, and minimal differences in the letter stroke width to obtain an appropriate typographic tonal density with an adequate type size. Even after exposure to light, the texts printed in a proper type size and stroke width remained visible.

The digitisation of an old inscription, lettering, calligraphy or handmade typography (i.e. metal or wood typeface) represents an important procedure for the permanence of cultural heritage. It can contribute to the national awareness, local economy or even add international recognition. The old typography from the 19th century used by the prominent Slovenian printer Jožef Blaznik was analysed. It was digitised with some optimisations for contemporary use. Moreover, its usability was tested, since this typeface had an important contribution to the use and preservation of the Slovenian language by means of advanced printing technology and high quality of the work. In order to study the differences among various typefaces, the digitised typeface was compared with the other two widely used in printed publications. The influence of type size, substrate and digital printing (NIP) technology on legibility and preserved information was compared by analysing chemical, physical and colorimetric properties of the paper and prints, along with the typographic properties and legibility testing, using standard methods and the unconventional non-invasive testing methods, e.g. image analysis. The results show that the digitisation of old typography from the 19th century was an appropriate method, and that it is necessary to consider the chosen typeface and its size to ensure information permanence and legibility of a text. The selected (Blaznic) typeface could be used in printed publications, still ensuring satisfied legibility. Furthermore, information permanence was satisfactory even when this typeface was used in small type sizes. Therefore, the Blaznic typeface could be recommended even today for the use in different graphic design solutions.

Labels as a graphic product are important for information in declarations, especially for languages of smaller nations. Labels are increasingly required together with their ever more complicated technical performance, one of them being the desire to adapt the text to blind or partially sighted users. We therefore tested the possibility of using a declaration text in black with overprinted Braille cells with no or minor influence on legibility. The research was performed by analyzing the influence of printed cells on the achromatic halftone reproduction. The prints of the text and the overprinted Braille cells were made with a UV LED inkjet printer. Two different typefaces in two different sizes suitable for labelling were tested. The color properties were determined colorimetrically and the differences in the typographic tonal density of typefaces were measured with an image analysis. The legibility research was performed with the help of observers who read the plain printed text and the printed text in combination with overprinted Braille cells made with varnish. The results showed that an appropriate typeface and type size can reduce the influence of overprinted Braille on text legibility.

In television broadcasts, important information is often conveyed with short inscriptions. In such elements, the typeface, letter case, positioning, timing and colour combinations may affect the speed of information processing to the level of recognition. It is therefore necessary to choose an appropriate combination of these properties. In the present study, we were especially interested in the effects of applied colours in connection with the above-mentioned factors. The speed of recognising three-letter words was measured in different experimental conditions where the typeface of the inscription, its position and colour combination varied. Two typefaces (i.e. Calibri and Georgia), two letter cases (i.e. upper-case and lower-case), two positions (i.e. upper left and right) and four colour combinations (i.e. white on blue, blue on white, white on red and red on white) were tested. The results showed that colour combinations affected the speed of word processing to the level of recognition.

Daily contents presented on television screen are in most cases equipped with titles, for example the names and surnames of presented people, data about the location, subtitles or different advertisements. It is widely believed that upper-case letters are more useful (compared to lower-case letters) for placing short titles. The aim of the research was to determine the differences in recognition and reproduction times of short titles in various experimental conditions (especially the difference between lower- and upper-case letters when the x-height of lower-case letters is increased to the main size of upper-case letters). We were interested in how lower-case letters are comparable to upper-case letters in recognition and information processing. Five typefaces were included in the experiment, i.e. Calibri, Georgia, Swiss 721, Trebuchet and Verdana. Three-letter words were presented in lower- and upper-case, covering a comparable area in four different positions on the screen. The analysis of variance showed that the Calibri typeface was recognized and processed faster. The Georgia, Trebuchet and Verdana typefaces showed comparable processing times regardless their letter case.

In television broadcasting, there are no general rules about the implementation of various short inscriptions that accompany video image and provide additional information for the viewer. Therefore, we wanted to study what combination of typeface, letter case and position should be used for an on-screen presentation when fast recognition of a text is required. The present study investigated the minimum time required for recognising three-letter words presented in bold style on the screen in different experimental conditions. The typeface Georgia showed better legibility than Verdana, Calibri, Trebuchet and Swiss 721. Upper case letters were recognised faster compared to sentence and lower case letters. The recognition times were shorter for upper on-screen positions compared to the lower ones. The resulting combinations of text properties that are processed faster thus seem more appropriate for the on-screen use especially for television broadcasts.

Despite the importance of packaging attractiveness in product perception, limited research was done on the possible effects of warning messages on the packaging’s visual appeal. Our study investigated the attractiveness of the packaging with prominent and non-prominent warning pictograms. Before this, prominent design properties (i.e. large size and thick lines), which make pictograms highly noticeable, were identified by eye-tracking measurements. The packaging samples were designed especially for the purpose of the study. The results showed that large and thick pictograms were noticed more quickly than small and thin pictograms, and this did not affect people’s perception of the packaging’s attractiveness. Our findings encourage manufacturers to use highly noticeable pictograms in order to increase the likelihood of being detected more easily by the users. This is an important step closer to proper handling of the product.

Purpose: The aim of this paper is to present the results of a survey on the usage of e-books and enhanced e-books among students in Slovenia. The main research objective was to determine factors influencing students’ perception of e-books and enhanced e-books. Methodology/approach: Quantitative methods were used to explore the e-book usage among students. The units of analysis were Slovenian students of graphic arts technology (N = 230, 18 % men, 82 % women) at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering aged between 18 and 30. The research was conducted during the first semester of the 2014/2015 academic year. ANOVA and t-tests were used to determine statistically significant differences. Results: The analysis showed that printed books were preferred for learning, even by e-book users. E-book users are more familiar with enhanced e-books and have higher intentions to use them in the future. Practicality of e-books positively influences the frequency of e-book usage, while problems with focus and concentration when reading on the screen affect it negatively. Research restrictions: The research explores students’ attitude to e-books in general. No particular field of e-books is emphasized. The originality: This research is one of the first to study the e-books usage in relation to students’ attitude towards enhanced e-books. Contribution: This paper gives an insight on the receptiveness of students to e-books and enhanced e-books and can serve as the basis for future researches.

The use of rhetorical figures has become a widely–accepted method for capturing attention and positively increasing cognitive effort in print advertisements. So far research studies mostly analyzed the effect of rhetorical figures in the written as well as pictorial elements of an ad. However, there have been few studies addressing the effect of rhetorical figuration in the specific area of typeface design. This study analyzes the effects of typeface figuration (i.e., regular vs. irregular stylization of the form) on attention and attitude of the viewers. The study also looks at how the effect of typeface figuration changes in relation to the type of a product (hedonistic vs. utilitarian) being advertised. Through the use of a 2 × 2 experimental design, the study measures data using a combination of eye tracking (an objective method) and attitude scaling (a subjective method). 65 volunteers participated in the study. The eye tracking results show that using rhetorical figures in typeface mainly affects attention of the viewers. We have also determined that they influence their attitude. Additionally, the study shows that a typeface and a type of products are correlated; it shows that the hedonistic type of products can benefit more from the figuration. In conclusion, our study builds on and expands the current understanding of the use of rhetorical figures by proving that there is a correlation between the use of rhetorical figures in typeface and viewers' attention, depending on the type of product being advertised.

Instruction manuals provide important messages about the proper use of a product. They should communicate in such a way that they facilitate users' searches for specific information. Despite the increasing research interest in visual search, there is a lack of empirical knowledge concerning the role of pictograms in search performance during the browsing of a manual's pages. This study investigates how the inclusion of pictograms improves the search for the target information. Furthermore, it examines whether this search process is influenced by the visual similarity between the pictograms and the searched for information. On the basis of eye-tracking measurements, as objective indicators of the participants' visual attention, it was found that pictograms can be a useful element of search strategy. Another interesting finding was that boldface highlighting is a more effective method for improving user experience in information seeking, rather than the similarity between the pictorial and adjacent textual information. Implications for designing effective user manuals are discussed. Practitioner Summary: Users often view instruction manuals with the aim of finding specific information. We used eye-tracking technology to examine different manual pages in order to improve the user's visual search for target information. The results indicate that the use of pictograms and bold highlighting of relevant information facilitate the search process.

This paper focuses on a small fairytale book Makalonca, which was completelydesigned by Jože Plečnik.The Slovenian architecture by Jože Plečnik (1872–1957) is well known in Europe,while his work in the area of graphic design and typography is less known. Duringthe Second World War, he made all the decorations, vignettes and initial letters forthe fairytales, and elaborated graphic design for the book published in two differentbindings – hardcover and paperback. Two paperback reprints were subsequentlypublished as well. In both reprints it was stressed that the graphic design remainedthe same as done by Plečnik. Instead, both reprints are actually deformations of theoriginal. As a consequence, the Slovenian cultural heritage has lost a great deal.

The quality of production (e.g. paper, typesetting, reproduction of illustrations, printing and bookbinding) of a book (reprint) is very important. The quality of a 1978 reprint of a book from 1921 was studied using standard and non-destructive testing methods such as microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Chemical, physical and colorimetric properties of the papers, colour differences of the prints and typographic tonal density were analysed. Results showed that the reprint is not an identical copy of the original. Some of the differences in the reprint compared with the original (e.g. typographic tonal density) could easily have been avoided while others (e.g. structural and optical properties of paper, colour prints) are unavoidable, mainly because of the influence of internal and external factors on ageing. Ageing influences the properties of paper and colour print: optical and colour properties deteriorate and colour fades. It is concluded that precise and systematic evaluation of the properties of an old book should be carried out before a reprint is prepared. The results of the research, using non-destructive methods such as microscopy, spectroscopy and image analysis, are useful for characterising the properties of paper and printing ink, typography and reproduction of illustrations.

This paper focuses on a small fairytale book entitled Makalonca, completely designed by Jože Plečnik, and its two reprints, which were unfortunately found inferior to the original design. The Slovenian architecture by Jože Plečnik (1872–1957) is well known in Europe, while his work in the area of graphic design and typography is less known. During the Second World War he made all the decorations, vignettes and initial letters for fairytales and elaborated graphic design for the book. Two paperback reprints were subsequently published as well; one a year after the architect’s death in 1958 and another in 1988, commemorating the centenary of the fairytales. In both reprints it was stressed that the graphic design remained the same as done by Plečnik. However, both reprints are deformations of the original. Not only are they different in book and layout size, typefaces, one even in the type style and type size of the body text, but there are also many other differences to be found within the rest of the text. In consequence, the Slovenian cultural heritage has lost a great deal.

The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of light on the changes in typographic and colorimetric properties of ink jet prints in order to establish an appropriate typeface style and type size for business correspondence to ensure information permanence. The prints were made with six ink jet printers from different manufacturers on four different office papers. Four different, widely used typefaces (one old-style, one transitional, and two sans-serif) in five different sizes (6, 8, 10, 12, and 16 pt) were tested. The resistance of printed business correspondence to light was evaluated according to the ISO 12040 standard. The color differences were determined spectrophotometrically. The differences in typographic tonal density and wicking of typefaces were measured with image analysis. After the exposure to light, the biggest difference in typographic tonal density was observed at type sizes 6 and 8 pt, and at one of the sans-serif typefaces.