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Stroke induces widespread changes in the brain. In this paper, we monitored some markers of early (2 h) and delayed events (1, 3 and 7 days of reperfusion) initiated by middle cerebral artery occlusion in core/penumbra counterparts of the non-ischemic hemisphere (i.e. contra-core and contra-penumbra). Our results showed that a profound transient drop (2 h and 3 days) of protein synthesis was measured in the contra-core, while the contra-penumbra exhibited translation over-activity at the same time. Glutamate release was detected only in the contra-core, with a peak on the first day. Degenerating neurons became visible in the striatum (day 1), followed by cortex (day 3), earlier in contra-penumbra and later in contra-core. Moreover, the loss of NADPH diaphorase-positive neurons in the non-ischemic hemisphere was detected, with the greatest drop at the first day. Total microglia also started to fall, the earliest in the contra-penumbra region of the striatum (day 1), followed by the contra-core of the striatum and both cortex regions at the seventh day. In conclusion, transient focal ischemia affects remote regions of the brain and initiates processes involved in neuronal degeneration in an order which corresponds to the tissue sensitivity to ischemia, namely earlier in the contra-penumbra, and afterwards in the contra-core. The mechanism of secondary damage would influence the progressive neuronal loss of more distant brain regions., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Objectives: During the physiological ageing process atrophy of the alveolar bone appears in vertical direction. This bone resorption causes pushing the limits of the maxillary sinus at the expense of a degraded bone. The sinus volume increases due to the facial development in children and adolescents or during the ageing process due to the loss of teeth and bone mass. The main aim of this study is to determine the sinus shape and sinus floor morphology related to age., Materials and Methods: Human adult male and female cadaveric heads (aged 37 to 83 years) with different dental status were used. The three-dimensional CAD/CAM software was used to scan the solid impressions of the maxillary sinus to visualize the real sinus shape and sinus floor. Subsequently, other findings are shown in tables and evaluated graphically., Results: The maxillary sinus morphology, its relationship to the nasal cavity, the sub sinus alveolar bone height, displacement of the lowest and highest points of sinus, and the sinus relationship to the roots of the upper teeth were studied and evaluated. Some septa, crests, and the prominent infraorbital canal were also found in the area of the sinus floor., Conclusions: This paper provides a unique view on the maxillary sinus and its changes during the ageing process with preserved topographical relations in a representative sample of the Slovak population. The visualization of the maxillary sinus anatomy is necessary in the diagnosis and treatment plans for dental implants and during current surgical procedures., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

This article highlights an unusual and unilateral variation in the blood supply to the inferior portion of the thyroid gland observed on the right lobe during anatomy dissection course. The rare variation of the occurrence of two anomalous arteries: the middle thyroid artery and the aberrant accessory inferior thyroid artery, and one uncommon variant, the thyroid ima artery, was detected in an adult female cadaver. The two generally constant arteries, the superior thyroid artery and the inferior thyroid artery, have been found in their usual anatomical location. Both the middle thyroid artery and aberrant accessory inferior thyroid artery arose from the right common carotid artery. The middle thyroid artery coursed as a very short branch ventromedially to enter the inferior lateral portion of the right lobe of the thyroid gland. It was at the same level, in which the inferior thyroid artery reached the lateral border of the thyroid gland. The aberrant accessory inferior thyroid artery originated similarly, from the ventromedial surface of the right common carotid artery and passed to supply the inferior pole of the right lobe. The thyroid ima artery was found to arise from the brachiocephalic trunk, entering the isthmus of the thyroid gland. Information about the embryological background might be helpful to clarify why such a type of variation occurs. It is necessary to understand the possible existence of this anomaly, to carry out successful radical neck dissection and to minimize the risk of postoperative complications in patients.

The presence of nitrergic cells in the prefrontal cortex has been confirmed, however little is known about the postnatal development of these cells. Nitrergic neurons were studied histochemically by using NADPH-diaphorase staining in the prefrontal cortex of male Wistar rats from postnatal day 7-21 (P7-21). Neuronal NADPH-diaphorase is a nitric oxide synthase that provides a specific histochemical marker for neurons producing nitric oxide (NO). NO acts as a neurotransmitter and intracellular signaling molecule in the nervous system. We observed in 7 day old rats NADPH-d containing neurons that were intensely stained. These neurons were bipolar with a short dendrite with average length of 23 μm. During the second postnatal week, the neurons were mainly bipolar and were rarely multipolar. By P14 the cells were located primarily in cortical layers III-VI. Nitrergic neurons of the 21 day old rats were histochemically identified as multipolar cells with long radial extending dendrites. Dendrites of neurons in 14 and 21 day old rats were a similar length with an average of 57 μm. These results suggest that nitrergic neurons differentiate during a relatively short period of time and reach their structural maturity by the end of the second week of postnatal development., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

A major key to increasing the safety of cranial surgery is a thorough understanding of anatomy. The anatomy of the head is of fundamental interest to dental and medical students early in their studies. Clinically, it is mostly relevant to surgeons who are performing interventions and reconstruction in the maxillofacial region, skull base, and the orbit. However, the level of appropriate anatomical knowledge necessary for general and special medical and surgical practice is still under discussion. This study maps the significant areas and structures of the head that are not normally accessible during dissection courses because of time and difficulties involved in the preparation. The detailed photodocumentation enriched by diagrams provides a view of structures until now only partially documented. Three parasympathetic ganglia are located in hardly accessible areas of the head - inside the orbit, infratemporal fossa, and in the pterygopalatine fossa. No detailed photographs have been found in current anatomical textbooks and atlases in relation to the morphology of fibers (roots) connected to the ciliary, otic, and pterygopalatine ganglia. Therefore, this study focused on the detailed display of sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic roots of ganglia to provide relevant photodocumentation and an improvement in human anatomy teaching. This study also confirms that cadaver dissection provides an excellent opportunity for the integration of anatomy and clinical medicine into the early clinical training of undergraduate dental and medical students. We believe this article, because of the details mentioned above, will be beneficial not only for the future anatomical undergraduate but also for postgraduate education., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Nitric oxide (NO) is known to be a freely diffusible gaseous neurotransmitter that is not requiring synaptic connection to exert its effects. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS), the enzyme responsible for NO synthesis can be visualised by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase (NADPH-d) histochemistry. Other neurotransmitter is a classical neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh), regulated by enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) that hydrolyses the acetylcholine after its releasing. This work is presenting results of histochemical study of the NADPH-d and AChE expression (nitrergic and cholinergic neurons) in the spinal cord (SC) during various periods in its development. Specimens from Wistar rat pups in the age ranging from 1st to 21st postnatal days (P1-P21) have been compared with those of adult rats (P90). Transverse sections of the SC were evaluated by light microscope. In adults, the NADPH-d positivity was detectable in the neurons of superficial and deep layers of the dorsal horn, pericentral area and in the area of preganglionic autonomic nuclei. AChE positive structures were seen in the same locations as previous ones with the exception of two locations: in superficial layers of the dorsal horn AChE staining was absent, while in the ventral horn the groups of AChE positive motoneurons were found. At the perinatal period both NADPH-d and AChE positive neurons were stained from slight to moderate intensity only. During later developmental periods the staining gradually increased and achieved adult level of intensity on the day P21. Our results confirmed the presence of nitrergic and cholinergic neurons in investigated areas of the SC and indicated their fully functioning of NADPH-d and AChE positive structures in SC from the third postnatal week.

Objectives: The aim of our work was to determine the expression of Pi class glutathione S-transferase (GSTP1) in 43 samples of invasive breast carcinoma and compare results versus normal breast cells., Background: Breast cancer is the commonest cancer in women. Despite advances in early detection and more efficacious adjuvant chemotherapy, a part of patients with early-stage have reccurent disease. In these cases the development of resistance to therapy is observed. The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are potentially involved in tumour chemoresistance., Methods: Enzyme immunohistochemical method was chosen for the detection of GSTP1 and its expression was compared in breast cancer cells versus normal breast cells., Results: We have found that majority (63%) of breast carcinomas shows GSTP1 positivity (nuclear and cytoplasmic immunoreactivity). It is expected that GSTP1 positive tumours would show a poorer prognosis than GSTP1 negative ones., Conclusion: Immunohistochemistry is a useful method for investigating the expression and cellular localization of GSTP1 within tumours. It may be applied to a routine clinical test and it can serve as a marker for resistance to chemotherapy (Tab. 1, Fig. 4, Ref. 20). Full Text in free PDF www.bmj.sk.

Objectives: The aim of our work was to determine the expression of three MDR proteins (MDR1/Pgp, MRP1 and LRP/MVP) in 15 tissue samples of nephroblastoma (Wilms' tumour)., Background: The majority of Wilms' tumours respond well to chemotherapy and are successfully cured, but a small subset displays resistance to therapy. The molecular mechanisms of drug resistance in this tumour type of childhood are still poorly analyzed. In our opinion, the elucidation of reasons for therapy failure in nephroblastomas is urgently needed before cure becomes a reality for children with this cancer., Methods: To demonstrate these proteins the enzyme indirect immunohistochemical method was used. The brown colour of the diaminobenzidine reaction product allowed us to define the distribution of stain clearly., Conclusion: Our immunohistochemical analysis did not demonstrate any expression of MDR1 in all cases of nephroblastoma (14 cases were after pre-operative chemotherapy, 1 case wasn't). The analysis of MRP1 and LRP expression in our set revealed 60% positivity for MRP1 and 26.7% positivity for LRP. The ability to recognize the multidrug resistance phenotype might assist in choosing specific chemotherapeutic regimens to improve prognosis and therapy (Tab. 2, Fig. 2, Ref. 20). Full Text (Free, PDF) www.bmj.sk.

Purpose: To study the microscopic structure of postmortem human Meibomian glands (MGs) in the elderly., Methods: Human MG samples from left lower eyelids were obtained at autopsy from 5 men and 4 women with a mean age of 63.1 +/- 7.67 years. The tissues were fixed and embedded in paraffin. Serial transverse sections 5 mum thick were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), van Gieson, and Masson blue stains. Computer-assisted 3-dimensional reconstructions of MGs were performed, and morphologic and volumetric data were analyzed., Results: The average length of human MGs in the nasal, central, and temporal areas was 1.551 +/- 0.43, 1.654 +/- 0.47, and 1.594 +/- 0.57 mm, respectively. The average surface area of the glands in the nasal, central, and temporal areas was 0.029 +/- 0.03, 0.033 +/- 0.01, and 0.056 +/- 0.03 mm, respectively. The average volume of glands in the nasal, central, and temporal areas was 0.054 +/- 00.4, 0.056 +/- 0.03, and 0.053 +/- 0.03 mm, respectively. A circular, floral arrangement of acini, surrounding the terminal duct just deep to the skin, is probably responsible for the circular arrangement seen clinically around each healthy orifice. We confirmed that most glands are embedded within a cylindrical, connective tissue matrix., Conclusions: We report the dimensions of normal Meibomian acini in an older population. Some structural features observed may explain normal physiologic landmarks or contribute to glandular pathophysiology.

1. The aim of this work was to study the influence of reduced aortic blood flow on NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) staining in the gray matter of L4-S3 spinal cord segments. 2. Surgery was performed on the abdominal aorta of the rabbit. Spinal cord ischemia was introduced by infrarenal aortic constriction to 30% from the normal blood flow. Animals were allowed to survive 1 week, 1 month and 3 months after surgery. Neurological outcome was studied in relation to the duration of aortic occlusion. The NADPH-d histochemistry was used for the visualisation of spinal cord sections. 3. The most affected area of the spinal cord was pericentral region, and slight changes were seen in the NADPH-d activities of both dorsal and ventral horns. One week after surgery, NADPH-d positive pericentral neurons were almost unchanged in their shape and intensity of staining, the only difference was seen in slightly increased staining of the background around the central canal. One month following surgery neurons exhibited shrinkage or were swollen, NADPH-d staining was less intensive in the pericentral zone and positively stained vessels were present. 4. Three months of ischemia influenced the NADPH-d activity: (a) In the pericentral region were seen intensively NADPH-d stained neurons almost normal in shape of their bodies but with shortened processes or without them; (b) NADPH-d staining of neuropil was greatly enhanced mostly around the central canal and in the dorsal commissure; (c) Numerous vessels were present in the pericentral zone and in the location of the ventral horn. 5. It can be concluded that the reduction of blood flow in the abdominal aorta makes most changes in the pericentral region of the rabbit spinal cord. Increased NADPH-d staining of neuropil and the presence of positively stained vessels reflect increased NADPH-d/NOS production in the spinal cord gray matter after long-term incomplete aortic occlusion.

Coronary and valvular heart disease during diabetes mellitus (DM) are major contributors of morbidity and mortality in the diabetic population. Relatively little atention has been given to the study of heart valve nerve structures in different pathological processes. In this study we have demonstrated the presence of possible morphological alterations in vessels of the anterior cusp of the rat mitral valve during 8-12 weeks DM. A histochemical method was used for the detection of NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d), which is the indirect NO-synthase marker. Arterioles and fine capillaries were localized in the attachment zone of the anterior cusp. Perivascular nerve fibres were identified running in the tunica adventitia. A marked dilatation of the vessels was seen in diabetes in comparison with control samples. No NADPH-d positive nerve fibres were observed in the tunica adventitia. It can be presumed that metabolic changes in the vessel walls during DM reflect modified neurotransmission of NO by means of their excessive overproduction of NOS (endothelial--eNOS) in endothelial cells. (Fig. 6, Ref. 32.).

In this study, we have determined the LRP (lung resistance-related protein) by immunohistochemical method. LRP belongs to proteins which cause the multidrug resistance (MDR). It has been found in various normal human tissues, where it plays a protective role against toxic compounds. Multidrug-resistant cells distribute the cytotoxic drug into the perinuclear region and then redistribute it back into the cytoplasm. It is just a hypothesis today that LRP can mediate drug resistance by regulating both the cytoplasmic redistribution and the nucleocytoplasmic transport of drugs. In order to detect LRP we have used the paraffin-embedded sections of the normal human lung tissue. LRP was predominantly located in two regions: 1) in bronchial epithelial cells and 2) in alveolar macrophages. Positive cells were coloured brown and showed strong reactivity. Negative control included the omitting of primary antibody and replacing it by buffer solution. Bronchial epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages stayed uncoloured, i.e. unreactive. (Fig. 5, Ref. 17.).

Background: The distribution of NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) activity was investigated in the spinal cord of pheasants., Material and Methods: Histochemical method for visualization of NADPH-d was used in this study. This method is considered to be a good marker for NO synthase., Results: The investigation of NADPH-d activity in laminae of the thoracic spinal cord of pheasants revealed the presence of scattered intensively stained neurons in laminae VIII and IX of the ventral horn. In the location of autonomic preganglionic neurons, no presence of NADPH-d positivity was noticed. The pericentral area (lamina X) and intermediate zone (lamina VII) showed NADPH-d positive neurons located more dorsally with larger distance from the central canal. In superficial layers of the dorsal horn (lamina I and II) marked differences were seen in the distribution of NADPH-d activity through the medio-lateral direction., Conclusion: In summary, it can be suggested that the observed presence of NADPH-d activity may reflect the utilization of NO in the thoracic part of the spinal cord in pheasants. (Fig. 5, Ref. 20.)

The presence of NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) activity was investigated in the thoracic part of rat, rabbit and pheasant spinal cords. Histochemical method for visualization of NADPH-d was used in this study. The comparison between all spinal cord regions (laminae) in three experimental species revealed marked differences. Especially in the ventral horn, the presence of NADPH-d activity was different. While the pheasant ventral horn possessed number of scattered intensively stained neurons, the rat and rabbit showed no NADPH-d activity in this region. Pericentral area (lamina X), intermediate zone (lamina VII) and dorsal horn revealed the presence of NADPH-d positive neurons in all examinated species although they differed in the distribution of NADPH-d activity. In summary, it can be suggested that the observed differences in the presence and distribution of NADPH-d activity among species may reflect their different phylogenetic development. As a consequence, different NO function in spinal cord of various species can be presumed. (Fig. 10, Ref. 28.)

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a major role as a neuronal messenger molecule. NO has been assumed to act as a retrograde signalling molecule that modulates transmitter release. Acetylcholine (ACh) is known to function as a typical neurotransmitter. In the present work the presence of both transmitters (NO and ACh) and their possible relations in the rabbit spinal cord were examined. In our experiments histochemical methods for the visualisation of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and NADPH diaphorase (NADPH-d) were used. Both histochemical methods were performed separately and together on the same sections of the thoracic spinal cord. NADPH-d positive dark blue stained neurons were mainly detected in superficial and deep layers of dorsal horn, preganglionic autonomic neurons and pericentral area (1). The presence of AChE positive amber yellow neurons was confirmed mostly in motoneurons located in ventral horns and then in neurons of the intermediate zone. Except for the above mentioned also double-labeled neurons containing both yellow and dark blue histochemical product were noticed. Their presence was confirmed in the intermediate zone and in the pericentral area. Thus, the coexistence of NADPH-d and AChE was confirmed in the area of interneurons. These observations suggest that NO may play a role in the control of cholinergic neuronal activity and that NO can be involved in the modulation of synaptic transmission. (Fig. 9, Ref. 21.)

The necessary increase in the clinical components of the medical curriculum has created pressure to reduce the amount of time spent on basic science, particularly the detailed learning of anatomy. Methods of learning must be re-evaluated, but departments will be constrained by resources available. The clinical aspects of anatomy should form the principles of a core course, with a limit to the wider anatomical knowledge required. Feedback from the students is recommended as an initial form of monitoring the course. (Ref. 13.)

In this study we have demonstrated the presence of neuropeptide substance P and non-peptide neurotransmitter NO (nitric oxide) in the dorsal root ganglia of rabbit. NADPH-diaphorase histochemical staining was used for the detection of NO and immunohistochemical method for the detection of substance P.A particular number of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells were stained by SP and NADPH-d reaction. The presence of SP and NADPH-diaphorase positive cells varied depending upon spinal level of DRGs. Positively stained neurons were only small or medium-sized. Cells of large diameter profiles showed no staining. Substance P immunoreactive cells were stained brown and dark brown, the intensity of NADPH-d staining varied from light to very dark blue. In some DRGs cells, there was a very significant neuronal co-localization of immunoreactivity for SP and reactivity for NADPH-d. In summary, DRG cells appear to express diaphorase and substance P activity, and some of them contain both neurotransmitters. Recent studies analysing the participation of NO in the regulation of SP release in the spinal cord suggest, that the DRGs neurons may display a close interaction between NO and SP. (Fig. 14, Ref. 39.)

The expansion of knowledge in basic medical sciences is not linked to the time assigned for the teaching of anatomy to medical undergraduates. The question of "basic knowledge" in teaching anatomy during medical training arises as a need for education of future clinical doctors. Nowadays, two extreme views in teaching anatomy can be recognized: one adopted some pure anatomists who feel their existence threatened even by the idea of any reduction in their field, and one by some morphologists exclusively interested in cellular biology, who consider that classical anatomy is of no interest, since it has been exhausted as a field for research. An intermediate position is taken by some clinicians, who maintain that anatomy is indispensable but seek a severe reduction in the content to what they consider to be necessary. The above mentioned need for clinicians was reflected in recommendations of Education Committee of the General Medical Council (GMC) which in short, could be characterized by: the substantial reduction of factual information, the increase of student learning and the emphasis of clinically applied anatomy with its integration to the general medical education. GMC delegated the Department of Anatomy at the University of Cambridge by the developing of the new anatomy course. This new course was for the first time introduced in school year 1998-1999. In this study are presented ways and methods of undergraduate anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge. These educational principles could serve as a model for teaching anatomy during its transformation in other medical faculties.

NO appears to play a significant role in the physiological processes of many of the body's systems. This review examines the present molecular, physiological and pathological knowledge related to NO and its clinical implications. The role of NO in pathophysiology of diseases is not yet fully elucidated. It is still unclear whether alterations in NO production, release and degradation are primary events in pathological processes. The presented work deals with neurodestructive and neuroprotective effects of NO. The hypothesis suggests that under physiological conditions NO acts as a neuronal messenger molecule. In pathological conditions, with excessive NO release, NO may function as a cytotoxic molecule being involved in several neurodegenerative processes. The most important issue associated with NO research will be to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of NO action. (Fig. 2, Ref. 32.)

Nitrergic structures in normal rabbit dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were demonstrated in this study. Histochemical reaction for detection of NADPH-d activity was used indicating, the presence of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). Diaphorase activity was found mostly in small ganglion cells. The cells defined as intermediate in size were stained less frequently, and no big cell expressed diaphorase activity. The intensity of staining varied from light blue and violet to very dark. The highest number of reactive cells was detected in the sacral DRG. Neurons expressed very low concentration of diaphorase activity in cervical, thoracic and lumbar DRGs. These findings suggest, that NADPH-diaphorase activity demonstrate a distinctive distribution depending upon spinal level.

Silver impregnation analysis of neuronal damage and concurrent histochemical characterization of NADPH diaphorase-positive neuronal pools in the rabbit lumbosacral segments was performed during and after transient spinal cord ischemia. Strongly enhanced staining of NADPH diaphorase-positive neurons and their processes appeared in the superficial dorsal horn (laminae I-III), the pericentral region (lamina X) of lower lumbar segments, the lateral collateral pathway, and mainly in neurons of the sacral parasympathetic nucleus in the S2 segment at the end of 40 min of abdominal aorta ligation or 1 day after reperfusion. Despite the development of extensive neuronal degeneration in the central gray matter (laminae IV-VII) between 1 and 4 days after ischemia, a number of nonnecrotizing neurons localized in the areas corresponding with the distribution of NADPH diaphorase-positive neurons was detected, suggesting a selective resistance of these classes of neurons against transient ischemic insult. While the precise mechanism of the observed resistance is not known, it is postulated that region-specific synthesis of nitric oxide and its vasodilatatory effect during the period of incomplete spinal ischemia may account for the observed selective resistance of these spinal cord neurons to transient ischemia.