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This study sought to examine the effectiveness of Reading RACES (RR), a computer program designed to deliver a repeated reading intervention with culturally relevant passages. Specifically, this study examined the effects of RR on the oral reading fluency (ORF) and comprehension gains for first-grade learners in an urban setting and whether these gains would generalize to novel, generic passages. Five first-grade African American students at risk for reading failure were selected to participate in this study. Results indicated a functional relation between the use of RR and student gains in ORF and comprehension. All students who participated in this study demonstrated moderate to substantial gains on their ORF and comprehension on practiced passages. In addition, the data showed reading skills generalized to novel passages and maintained even 1 month following intervention. These findings extend the previous research base for RR. Limitations and future implications will be discussed.

This study examined the effects of a novel computer software program, Reading RACES (Relevant and Culturally Engaging Stories), on the oral reading fluency and comprehension of three urban first graders who were English language learners (ELLs) and showed reading/special education risk. The individually administered intervention consisted of repeated readings of culturally relevant passages delivered through computer software. A multiple baseline across participants revealed that after intervention, the participants increased their oral reading fluency and comprehension of novel culturally relevant (CR) passages, and to a slightly lesser extent, generalized these skills to AIMSweb (non-culturally relevant, NCR) passages. These findings are discussed relative to study effects for ELLs and the usefulness of this technology in urban classrooms.

Students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) perform academically below their peers. One area of particular challenge is written expression. Using a multiple-probe design across participants, this study evaluated the effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on the writing skills of three students with EBD, ages 11-14. The researchers used GO 4 IT . . . NOW strategy instruction to teach students to write paragraphs in the context of their individualized education programs; in particular, students learned to write goals and objectives related to their self-identified academic and nonacademic needs. Researchers taught 19 GO 4 IT . . . NOW! lessons in a one-on-one format; lessons included explicit strategy instruction, feedback, self-evaluation, and practice with revising paragraphs. Results indicate a functional relation between GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction and improved expository and IEP goal paragraphs. Students maintained gains into the following school year. Social validity, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Despite the requirement that teachers implement evidence-based instruction in their classrooms, a significant research-to-practice gap persists. Far too often, teachers resort to quick fixes found through online searches or rely on conventional wisdom to make instructional decisions. This is no surprise as identifying evidence-based interventions can be time-consuming, overwhelming, and confusing. Indeed, claims of practices being evidence based are ubiquitous, even for practices that clearly lack evidence to support their efficacy. In addition, once an evidence-based practice is selected, the process for implementing it and evaluating its effectiveness can be an additional challenge. The purposes of this article are to distinguish between an "evidence-based practice" as an instructional strategy and "evidence-based education" as a problem-solving process and to assist teachers in identifying, implementing, and evaluating evidence-based practices in their classrooms.

This study examined the effects of a reading racetrack game on acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of sight words for four kindergarten students who are deaf. The game consisted of placing sight words around a racetrack board and prompting the participant to read the words. A multiple probe design across word sets demonstrated a functional relation between the intervention and the participants' acquisition of vocabulary to 100% mastery on at least three consecutive sessions for each participant. Three out of four participants maintained most of the sight words acquired for 2-4 weeks after intervention and generalized reading the words to another presentation format.

Post-school employment outcomes for individuals with disabilities continue to be inadequate when compared to their peers without disabilities (Newman et al., 2011). One barrier to employment for individuals with disabilities is a lack of employment "soft skills" (Riesen, Morgan, Schutlz, & Kupferman, 2014), such as punctuality and work completion. This study investigated the effects of UPGRADE Your Performance on soft skills of secondary students with disabilities at both in-school and community-based job sites. UPGRADE Your Performance instruction included self-monitoring, goal setting, self-graphing, and technology-aided instruction. Results demonstrated all students improved in a self-selected soft skill area, made gains in their overall performance, were able to self-monitor their own performance using a handheld device, and generalized their skills to a second setting. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are included.

The effects of guided notes (GN) in the English-speaking population are well documented. Limited empirical research has examined the effectiveness of GN with other non-English-speaking students. Hence, the present study investigated the effects of a GN intervention program on the academic performance of five students with learning difficulties during history class in a high school setting in Cyprus. An experimental reversal ABAB design was utilized to assess students' quiz and note-taking performance. Condition A consisted of regular classroom instruction, whereby the teacher lectured on historical events and students took their own notes. Condition B consisted of students completing GN while the teacher presented the history topic with PowerPoint slides. Students' learning performance was measured by (a) the number of correct responses on timed quizzes the following day and (b) the completeness and accuracy of notes taken during history instruction. Results evidenced a strong functional relation between students' academic performance and the GN program for all students. Student quiz performance improved by 23.5% to 33.5% during intervention. Similar findings were noted for note-taking performance. Positive social validity outcomes from the teacher and students support the practicality of the program. Implications for practice are discussed.

This study examined the effects of behavioral skills training (BST) on teachers' implementation fidelity of a reading racetrack (a board game designed to increase sight word fluency) with elementary students identified as struggling readers. BST, an alternative to traditional professional development, is a performance-based protocol incorporating instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. A multiple probe design across teacher-student dyads demonstrated that BST was functionally related to the teachers' implementation of a reading racetrack with 100% fidelity on at least three consecutive sessions. Additionally, students met mastery criteria for sight word acquisition and demonstrated maintenance at least one to two weeks post intervention.

Previous research has identified UPGRADE Your Performance as a method for teaching employment soft skills to students with disabilities. UPGRADE Your Performance instruction is a multicomponent intervention including self-evaluation, self-graphing, goal setting, and technology-aided instruction. This pilot study investigated the generalized effects of UPGRADE Your Performance on soft skills of secondary students with intellectual and other developmental disabilities participating in an 18-21 transition program located on a university campus. Results indicated that when students improved in two targeted soft skill areas, generalization occurred to three non-targeted soft skill areas. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vocabulary knowledge is an important foundation skill for reading across all subject areas. Because students with disabilities lag behind their peers in reading skills, there is a need for efficient and effective vocabulary interventions. Focusing on morpheme knowledge is one efficient approach to building vocabulary. This article describes an intervention package that combines several evidence-based techniques, including explicit instruction, fluency drills, self-graphing, and peer mediation, to increase morpheme knowledge.

This study examined the quality of transition components of the IEPs of 28 high school graduates with disabilities, their projected postsecondary outcomes and levels of satisfaction with these outcomes, and the correspondence between projected and actual outcomes. Results indicated that, although the quality of the transition components was not exemplary, some of the outcomes for the students were quite positive. Examination of correspondence between the projected and actual outcomes showed that the greatest number of matches was in the area of employment. Results suggest that a comprehensive transition program is a critical ingredient for fostering post-school success. (Contains 6 tables.)

Although evidence-based practices for improving academic engagement for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) have been identified, many teachers do not implement these practices with optimal fidelity. Thus, effective strategies are needed to improve teacher fidelity. Performance feedback is an effective professional development strategy, but it is unclear whether ancillary strategies like goal setting might further improve fidelity. In this study, we evaluated the effects of email performance feedback with and without goal setting on teacher implementation of opportunities to respond and behavior-specific praise using a multiple probe design. Participants were four general and special educators at a U.S. alternative school for students with EBD. Results indicated that a combination of written performance feedback and goal setting was effective, and that performance feedback alone was also effective. We were unable to determine whether the goal-setting component strengthened the performance feedback. Teachers provided positive feedback about the utility and feasibility of performance feedback with goal setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students with disabilities trail behind their peers without disabilities while in school, as well as in post-secondary outcome areas. Given that self-determination and enhanced academic skills are associated with improved post-school outcomes, one possible solution is to identify interventions that teach self-determination and academic skills simultaneously. This study investigated the effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on expository writing skills of five high school students with low-incidence disabilities. Using a multiple-probe-across-participants design, the authors measured the effects of strategy instruction on quality of expository paragraphs and quality and content of individualized education program (IEP) goal paragraphs. Results indicated a functional relation between the intervention and improved paragraph writing. Limitations, suggestions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.

The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with tools that they can use to teach written expression to school-age students with intellectual disabilities. These tools are presented around the mnemonic ACCESS: accommodations and assistive technologies, concrete topics, critical skills, explicit instruction, strategy instruction, systematic evaluation. Teachers should consider all six components of ACCESS while planning. They are presented in the order of the acronym, but this does not necessarily prescribe the planning order.

Early literacy skills are critical for success in school, yet many children fail to obtain these skills in a timely manner leaving them unable to perform at minimal academic expectations. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of word box instruction, a research-based intervention designed to promote phonemic awareness, on the phonological, reading, and spelling skills of three kindergartners. A multiple probe design across the three skills was sequentially replicated across students to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. Results demonstrated a functional relation between the word box instruction and increases in all three students' segmenting skills and letter-sound correspondences, along with demonstrated improvements in spelling and reading.

Feedback provides a vehicle for integrating all components of formative instructional practices: clear learning targets, evidence of student learning, and student ownership in the process. Feedback is the keystone to formative instructional practices as it is one of the most powerful instructional tools available. This paper (a) describes the role feedback plays in formative instructional practices, (b) suggests some evidence-based instructional strategies practitioners can employ to increase opportunities for feedback about their instruction, and (c) recommends ways to enhance the effectiveness of the feedback students receive.

The ongoing collection and documentation of evidence of students' performance in the classroom is a fundamental component of formative instructional practices, essential for ensuring student success. Multiple methods of collecting and documenting evidence of students' academic performance in the classroom are described. These methods include direct behavioral observations, evaluation rubrics, recording devices, general curriculum-based outcome measures, goal attainment scaling, and graphing performance. A discussion of how teachers can use data derived from these assessment methods to make instructional decision is provided.

As more states adopt the Common Core State Standards, teachers face new challenges. Teachers must unpack these standards and develop explicit learning targets to make these rigorous standards accessible to their students. This task can be especially challenging for special educators who must balance standards-based education with individualized instruction. This paper describes the value of clarifying learning targets, defines different types of targets, and provides strategies and resources to assist practitioners in unpacking standards to develop learning targets. In addition, the authors suggest how the standards can be used to drive individualized education program planning to maximize learning for students with disabilities and increase the likelihood of student success.

With many states moving toward increased accountability for all teachers, special educators, who have long been held accountable through the implementation of individualized education programs and the use of evidence-based practices, have much to offer. Formative instructional practices are evidence-based techniques that are familiar to special educators and can be implemented in classrooms filled with students of all skill and ability levels. Formative instructional practices are the way that teachers and students document evidence of student learning and make instructional decisions based on that evidence. These effective and versatile practices help teachers continuously assess their students, make data-based decisions, and ensure optimal learning. This article suggests that special educators are well positioned to make an important contribution as schools adopt more rigorous standards and the formative instructional practices necessary to guide students to mastery of these standards. An overview of these practices is provided.

Cover-copy-compare is a practical, low-cost, effective strategy for teachers to add to their repertoires of evidence-based practices. This article describes the cover-copy-compare strategy and how it can be applied to teach both self-management and basic academic skills. A variety of ways this strategy can be used across content areas are suggested along with ideas for how teachers can maximize their use of the strategy.

This study compared the reading gains of Kindergarten students who were at risk for reading failure who were taught with either a structured supplemental reading program or with teacher-designed or teacher-selected instruction. The authors used a quasi-experimental design with preexisting groups to examine changes from pretest to posttest. Although both programs were effective in producing statistically significant improvements in word attack and phonemic awareness skills, results revealed a pattern of moderate differences favoring a structured supplemental program called the Early Reading Tutor. Furthermore, anecdotal information from questionnaires suggested that participating tutors who used Early Reading Tutor would recommend it to others and considered it an effective yet simple program to implement.

The purpose of this study was to examine the efficiency of an incremental rehearsal oral versus an incremental rehearsal written procedure on a sample of primary grade children's weekly spelling performance. Participants included five second and one first grader who were in need of help with their spelling according to their teachers. An alternating treatment design was used to compare incremental rehearsal oral with incremental rehearsal written instructional conditions. Accuracy, rate, retention, and generalization measures were used to determine which incremental rehearsal method was most efficient for helping these children practice spelling words. Overall, findings revealed that the oral incremental rehearsal was most efficient as children spelled words at higher rates under that instructional condition. On maintenance and generalization probes, children demonstrated similar spelling performance on the words that were taught in respective incremental rehearsal conditions. Implications for practitioners with regard to helping children practice their weekly spelling words are provided.

The authors compared the effects of two sight word fluency drills (i.e., reading racetrack and list drills). They used a repeated acquisition design across 8 second-grade students identified as at risk for reading difficulties. More participants performed better when they read words on the reading racetrack than on the list; however, results were mixed. The study also showed that the participants preferred the reading racetrack over the list. Findings indicate that teachers should consider using the racetrack drill as part of supplemental reading instruction, particularly when student motivation is a factor. Suggestions for practice and future research are discussed. (Contains 8 figures and 3 tables.)

This column provides brief summaries of transition-related articles published in 2011 in other professional journals. The 27 articles included descriptive, experimental, and qualitative research as well as program descriptions, conceptual papers, and practitioner pieces. All areas of Kohler's Taxonomy for Transition Programming were addressed: family involvement, interagency collaboration, program structure, student development, and student-focused planning.

Although vocabulary plays an important role in literacy and content instruction, there is a paucity of research identifying effective methods for teaching vocabulary. One promising strategy is morphemic analysis, which involves breaking words into morphemes, the smallest meaningful parts of words, and teaching students the meanings of those parts. The current study used a multiple probe across morphemes experimental design to determine the effects of an intervention package, GO FASTER (Graphic Organizers; Flashcards Added up and Self-graphed to Track progress; Errors Reviewed). Findings showed that with three to four instructional sessions, three high school students with high-incidence disabilities successfully defined morphemes at a predetermined fluency rate and generalized these definitions to untaught words. Implications for practice and future research are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

Studies that examined copy-cover-compare (CCC) and variations of this procedure were reviewed and analyzed. This review revealed a substantial number of studies that validated the use of CCC across spelling and math skills and across students with and without disabilities. A meta-analysis of findings indicated that CCC and variations of this procedure were effective for helping students acquire and become fluent in academic skills. The strongest effects were evident when CCC and variations of this procedure were combined with other evidence-based instructional components. Limitations, future directions for research, and recommendations for practice are offered. (Contains 6 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to extend prior flashcard drill and practice research by holding instructional time constant and allowing learning trials to vary. Specifically, the authors aimed to determine whether an incremental rehearsal method or a traditional drill and practice method was most efficient in helping 5 first-grade children read, maintain, and generalize words when time allocated for each instructional method was controlled. Findings revealed that all 5 participants learned more words per session with the traditional drill and practice method. However, a higher percentage of words that were taught under the incremental rehearsal condition were generalized when they were presented in the context of sentences. These findings have implications for school psychologists and educators who play a role in deciding what academic interventions will be used to maximize student learning in the classroom. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

Students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often struggle with spelling. Research shows this population benefits from self-management interventions, structured practice opportunities, and immediate feedback--all components of the copy-cover-compare strategy. This empirical investigation used a multiple-baseline experimental design to determine the effects of the copy-cover-compare strategy on acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of spelling words for four students with ADHD in Grades 1 through 3. Results showed a functional relation between copy-cover-compare and mastery, maintenance, and generalization of three sets of spelling words for each student. Limitations, implications for practice, and suggestions for future research are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

This column provides brief summaries of transition-related articles published in 2010 in other professional journals. The 64 articles included descriptive, experimental, and qualitative research as well as program descriptions, conceptual articles, and practitioner pieces. Addressed were all areas of Kohler's (1996) taxonomy for transition programming: family involvement, interagency collaboration, program structure, student development, and student-focused planning.

Even evidence-based instructional methods may not be sufficient for closing achievement gaps. If teachers are not maximizing instructional time, achievement gaps are likely to widen over time; therefore, instruction need not only be effective but efficient as well. The purposes of this article are to (a) provide practitioners with a broad definition of instructional efficiency and (b) describe several considerations for increasing efficiency in the classroom. Suggestions are made for planning, delivering, and evaluating instruction. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Taking notes from lectures or reading material can be challenging, especially for those who have learning disabilities. An alternative to traditional note-taking is a method called "guided notes," which has been found to improve the accuracy of students' notes, increase the frequency of student responses, and improve students' quiz and test performance. Additionally, research has revealed that students prefer to use guided notes over taking their own notes or using preprinted notes. The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with several suggestions for creating and using guided notes to enhance other effective teaching methods, support students' studying, and promote higher order thinking. (Contains 1 table and 5 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to compare the instructional effectiveness and efficiency of oral retelling, written retelling, and passage review comprehension strategies on third-grade students' accuracy and rate of answering reading comprehension questions. A modified alternating treatment design was used to compare the effects of oral retelling, written retelling, and passage review strategies. Each strategy occurred within the context of repeated readings with phrase drill error correction. This study extended previous research findings by examining the effects of oral and written retelling as strategies for improving both literal and inferential comprehension and by investigating the efficiency of retelling procedures. Findings revealed that students' accuracy in answering reading comprehension performance was better under both retelling conditions than the passage review condition. The oral retelling coupled with repeated readings and phrase drill error correction was the most efficient instructional method for answering comprehension questions correctly. (Contains 3 tables and 6 figures.)