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Composite materials have distinct properties such as a high strength-to-weight ratio, high corrosion resistance, a high modulus-to-weight ratio and wear resistance. The potential, strong mechanical properties and lower cost of E-glass fiber motivated the authors to carry out this work. Tensile, flexural and Izod impact tests were used in the current study to conduct a static analysis of an E-glass-reinforced isophthalic polyester composite and an E-glass-reinforced general-purpose (GP) or orthophthalic polyester composite. The thermal–mechanical behavior was investigated using thermogravimetric analysis and dynamic mechanical analysis tests. Furthermore, the surface morphology of the tested composites was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). When compared with the E-glass-reinforced GP polyester composite, the E-glass–isophthalic polyester composite demonstrated superior flexural properties and thermal stability. However, the tensile and impact properties of the E-glass–GP polyester composite were found to be higher than those of the E-glass–isophthalic polyester composite. SEM images show fiber pullout, matrix cracking and fiber breakage, among other things. The loss modulus and damping values of the E-glass-reinforced GP polyester composite were found to be greater than those of the E-glass-reinforced isophthalic polyester composite. The current composite can be used in marine applications, particularly the hull frame or body of the boat.

A solution casting approach is used to create hollow glass microsphere (HGM)-filled epoxy–syntactic foam composites (e–SFCs) by varying the concentrations of HGM in epoxy according to different particle sizes. Density analysis is used to investigate the impact of concentration and particle size regularity on the microstructure of e-SFCs. It was observed that e–SFCs filled with an HGM of uniform particle sizes exhibit a reduction in density with increasing HGM concentration, whereas e-SFCs filled with heterogeneous sizes of HGM exhibit closeness in density values regardless of HGM concentration. The variation in e–SFC density can be related to HGM packing efficiency within e–SFCs in terms of concentration and particle size regularity. The particle size with lowest true density of 0.5529 g/cm3, experimental density of 0.949 g/cm3 and tensile strength of 55.74 MPa resulted in e-SFCs with highest specific properties of 100.81 (MPa·g/cm3), with a 35.1% increase from the lowest value of 74.64 (MPa·g/cm3) at a true density of 0.7286 g/cm3, experimental density of 0.928 g/cm3 and tensile strength of 54.38 MPa. The e–SFCs’ theoretical density values were obtained. The variance in theoretical and experimental density values provides a thorough grasp of packing efficiency and inter-particle features.

Syntactic foam made from hollow glass microspheres (HGM) in an epoxy matrix has proven to be a good material with a strong structural strength. Understanding filler particle size variation is important in composite material formation, especially in syntactic foam, because of its numerous applications such as aerospace, marine, and structural purposes. In this present work, the effects of particle variation in different sizes (20–24 µm, 25–44 µm, 45–49 µm, and 50–60 µm) on the mechanical properties of the syntactic foam composites with a focus on flexural strength, modulus, and fracture surfaces are investigated. The particle sizes are varied into five volume fractions (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 vol%). The results show that the highest flexural strength is 89 MPa at a 5 vol% fraction of 50–60 µm particle size variation with a 69% increase over the neat epoxy. This implies that the incorporation of HGM filler volume fraction and size variation has a strong effect on the flexural strength and bending modulus of syntactic foam. The highest particle size distribution is 31.02 at 25–44 µm. The storage modulus E’ increased at 30 °C, 50 °C, and 60 °C by 3.2%, 47%, and 96%, respectively. The effects of wall thickness and aspect ratio on the size of the microstructure, the fracture surfaces, and the viscoelastic properties are determined and reported accordingly.

Epoxy syntactic foams (SF) filled with hollow glass microspheres (HGM) were prepared by simple resin casting method and characterization in this study. The effect of varying the amount of HGM on the specific mechanical and water absorption properties of SF composites were investigated. Five different composition of SF (SFT60-0.5 to SFT60-2.5) were compared with the neat epoxy matrix. The wall thickness of the microballoons differ because of its different percentile size distribution (10th, 50th and 90th), which reflects in its density variation. The results show that the specific tensile and flexural strength increases with an increasing filler (HGM) content. The density of SF filled with HGM reduces with increasing volume fraction of filler content. Scanning electron microscopy was done on the failed samples to examine the fractured surfaces. The water absorption capacity of the SF was also investigated as it relates to the HGM volume fraction variation. All the syntactic foam composition shows a better diffusion coefficient capacity than the neat epoxy resin. This makes it applicable in structural purposes and several marine application products such as Autonomous Ultimately Vehicle (AUV).

The objective of this work is to improve the structural characteristics of hollow glass microsphere (HGM) filled epoxy syntactic foam composites with little voids content and improved HGM dispersion in the composite. A modified degassing technique has been introduced during resin casting process of the HGM filled syntactic foam composites. The effect of HGM content volume fractions (5–25%) on the degassing techniques was examined. The syntactic foam composites were characterized by analysing structural morphology using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy(TEM), and density measurements (theoretical and experimental). Less than 5% void content has been achieved in this study. This resulted in improved tensile and dynamic mechanical properties (DMA).

Purpose The purpose of this study is to reduce the application of petroleum in automobile paint industry by replacing it with bio-based castor oil along with nano fillers to synthesize automobile base coat (BC). Design/methodology/approach Bio-based polyurethane (PU) coating applicable in automobile BC was synthesized by using modified castor oil incorporated with nano silica (NS) and titanium-based pigment particles. The influential characteristics of the coating was studied by carrying out cross-cut tape test, abrasion resistance, pencil hardness, lap-shear, thermo gravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis and acid, alkali and oil resistance tests. Findings Incorporation of NS particles, along with titanium-based pigment particles in optimized ratio into the paint matrix, increases the mechanical, chemical and oil resistance properties and hydrophobicity of the BC, and the findings are compared with the petro-based commercial BC. Research limitations/implications There is no significant improvement in thermal properties of the paint matrix, and it is less thermally stable than the commercial BC. Practical implications The paint developed through this study provides a simple and practical solution to reduce the petro-based feed-stock in automobile paint industry. Originality/value The current work which reports the use of ecofriendly PU BC for automobile paint applications is novel and findings of this study are original.

This work focused on studying the behaviour of thermo-mechanical properties of kenaf fibre-reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposites infused with clay nanoparticles. Kenaf/PLA biocomposites infused with different nanoclay contents of 0, 3, 5 and 7%wt with respect to PLA were fabricated using resin casting method. Thermo-mechanical properties were investigated using thermogravimetric analyser (TGA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). TGA results showed an improvement in the thermal stability of the biocomposites as nanoclay content was increased due to thermal barrier effects of nanoclays. DMA results showed that storage and loss moduli increased with increase in nanoclay content up to 5%wt nanoclay loading after which a reduction was observed, whilst tandelta gradually decreased with increase in nanoclay content. The glass transition temperature (Tg) of the biocomposites reduced with increase in nanoclay content. This was due to nanoclays which infused themselves into the biocomposite phase structure improving crystallinity. Tg also reduced due to agglomeration effects at high nanoclay loading. Consequently, the infusion of clay nanoparticles into kenaf/PLA biocomposites improved the thermo-mechanical properties of the biocomposites. Optimum improvements were achieved with 5%wt nanoclay loading.

This work focused on investigating the efficacy of clay nanoparticles loading in the medium velocity impact resistance of kenaf/polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposites. Kenaf/PLA biocomposites with different nanoclay loadings of 0, 3, 5 and 7% by weight were fabricated and their medium velocity impact resistance tested on a gas gun. Results indicate that the addition of nanoclay in the biocomposites improved the medium velocity impact resistance of the biocomposites, specifically the perforation threshold limit, energy absorbed, crack and damage resistance. Improvements on these properties were thought to be due to enhancements brought about by the nanoclays on interfacial bonding and microstructural properties of the biocomposites revealed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. The nanoclays reduced the micro-voids thereby improving bonding between PLA and kenaf fibres. SEM–EDX analysis detected silicon and aluminium elements which were from the nanoclays and the elemental maps showed that all the elements were uniformly distributed in all cases with good dispersion of the nanoclays. However, incidences of nanoclay agglomeration were observed at 7 wt% nanoclay content which had adverse effects on the biocomposites properties. Optimum results were achieved with 5 wt% nanoclay content, beyond which a reduction in the medium velocity impact resistance was observed. The perforation threshold, energy absorption capacity, resistance to damage and prevention of crack propagation increased by 41.9, 109, 26.5 and 28.9%, respectively, at the 5 wt% nanoclay content level. The study shows that the addition of nanoclay improves the impact properties of kenaf/PLA biocomposites within the medium velocity range. The novel nanoclay impregnated biocomposite material developed is suitable for applications where good impact properties are required.

Focus on biofibre-reinforced biopolymer composites as sustainable alternatives to non-biodegradable composites in high-performance applications is increasing. This work focused on characterising the performance of kenaf non-woven mat/PLA biocomposites under medium velocity impact loads. Biocomposite laminates of different fibre contents were fabricated and then analysed for their resistance to medium velocity impact on a high speed gas gun. The perforation threshold limit was determined and impact-induced damages analysed using non-destructive techniques. Results showed that kenaf non-woven mat/PLA biocomposites have a perforation threshold limit of 26 m/s and doubling of fibre content improved the perforation threshold limit by 42.3 %. The impact damage resistance of kenaf non-woven mat/PLA biocomposites increased by 27.6 % when fibre content was doubled. The failure modes resembled that of some conventional fibre-reinforced composites. It was concluded that kenaf non-woven mat/PLA biocomposites have a potential to cushion against medium velocity impacts and hence could be good replacements for the non-biodegradable composites used for cushioning against secondary debris in the medium velocity range.

In this study, the possibility of producing layered silicate-reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) using additive manufacturing procedures was investigated. In particular, this investigation presents novel methods for making nanoclay-infused acrylonitrile butadiene styrene composite spur gear. The gear was developed by introducing different weight percentages of nanoclay (0–5 wt%), on each acrylonitrile butadiene styrene layer. A square panel of 6 layers with varying proportions of nanoclay was fabricated using a 3D printer. The effect of nanoclay loading on the mechanical properties such as impact, tensile, flexural, and DMA of spur gears created using pure acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and nanoclay-infused nanocomposite was investigated and compared. The strength of the developed spur gear varies with different loading of nanoclay. The results that the spur gear, with 2 wt% nanoclay, offered superior properties. The micrographs showed the dispersion of nanoclay strongly bonded with the matrix, resulting in improved strength and stiffness. The improvement in mechanical properties depicts the effectiveness of additive manufacturing procedure with an enormous benefit for the mass production of gears of different types.

The chemical, mechanical, thermal, and microstructural properties of Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) foam based E-glass reinforced polyester sandwich composites are evaluated as compared with single layer E-glass both side of PVC foam polyester composite (C1) and double layer E-galss both side of PVC foam polyester composite (C2). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to analyze the chemical composition of composites. The mechanical properties of fabricated composites were studied in terms of impact, flexural, and tensile strength. Thermogravimetric analysis and Dynamic mechanical analysis tests were done for examine thermal properties. Carbonyl group –C=O of the ester group, unsaturation sites of –(CH2)n–, CH, and CH3 stretching were identified in chemical analysis. The tensile strength and tensile modulus for C2 was found higher 37% and 152% more respectively as compared to C1 composite however C1 composite showed better flexural properties as compared to C2. C2 composite has a 31% higher impact strength than composite C1. Both C1 and C2 composite showed approximately equal thermal stability whereas C2 composite showed better damping properties. SEM micrograph of fractured surface divulges the fiber pullout, matrix cracking, and honeycomb structure. Fabricated light weight sandwich composites can be used for marine application.

The chapter presents critical review of the past, present trends in the field of modification of carbohydrate macromolecules specific to nonstarch polysaccharide carbohydrates. It covers all the techniques used in modification of carbohydrate macromolecules including surface modification and in-depth modification. The chapter is addressed to researchers to have an up-to-date information on the research works carried out in modification of carbohydrate macromolecules. The chapter characteristically abridges the important works and developments in the last 5-10 years, giving carefully chosen examples in form of tables, which makes it easy for the readers to understand the literature. On the basis of past and present work, future research guidelines in the area of modification of carbohydrate macromolecules can be discussed.

In this work, mechanical performance on sandwich composites consisting of syntactic foam filled with hollow glass microsphere in an epoxy resin matrix as the core material and hybrid kenaf/glass fibers face-sheet based composites panel is studied. The main purpose of this work is to design a suitable lightweight composite panel material for structural application. Four different sequences of face-sheet reinforcement (e.g., kenaf-kenaf; glass-glass; glass-kenaf, and kenaf-glass) were adopted. In this study, the mechanical properties and failure modes are carefully investigated. The sandwich composites were characterized by compressive, tensile, and flexural properties. The results showed that compressive strength was highest at the “kenaf-glass” face-sheets, tensile strength was highest at “glass-glass” face-sheets, and flexural at “glass-glass” face-sheets with 52.1%, 67.6%, and 74.4% increase to “kenaf-kenaf” face-sheets, respectively. The tensile strength and modulus values with the specific strengths and modulus values showed that the mechanical properties of the sandwich composites can be influenced by hybridizing the face-sheet laminates of the composite. This shows that kenaf fiber has limited strength when used as reinforcement alone but gave an excellent performance when combined with glass fiber.

The objective of this work was to prepare a natural fiber reinforced composite product by using nanoparticle technique method. Nanoclay particles were infused into the banana fiber and these modified banana fibers were then reinforced in epoxy polymer composites. A short banana fiber reinforced epoxy polymer composite cylinder was prepared by resin impregnation method, and the compressive, tensile, interfacial and energy absorption characteristics were studied. The properties of nanoclay infused banana fiber reinforced composites were compared with alkaline (NaOH) treated and untreated banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites. It was observed that the nanoclay infused banana fiber composites has resulted in 17%, ∼2 times and 43% improved compressive yield stress, modulus and strength when compared with untreated banana fiber reinforced epoxy composite cylinder. However, nanoclay infusion induces brittleness into the fiber affecting the elongational properties. Tensile, flexural and short beam properties show that the reinforcement effect of nanoclay was higher in flexural and short-beam modes when compared with tensile mode, due to higher level of surface interaction of nanoclay particles in flexural and short-beam modes. About 2 times improved energy absorption properties were obtained in nanoclay infused banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites when compared with untreated banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites. Microscopy examination revealed that the nanoclay infusion in fiber improved fiber-matrix interfacial and load transfer characteristics leading to the higher level of property improvement in nanoclay infused banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites. The outcome of the result suggest that the nano-technique is very much useful and can be simply applied onto the natural fibers to realize the potential application of these materials.

Carbon black (CB)-filled polylactic acid (PLA) composites attract a significant interest due to their superior structural and functional performances. Properties of CB-filled PLA composites depend on physical and chemical interactions in them. In this study, interactions within CB (N220)-filled PLA composites as a function of processing method, filler concentration, and their effect on mechanical properties are investigated via mechanical tests. Strong interface interaction at intermediate concentration of 2.5 wt.% CB with PLA was confirmed through mechanical tests. Moreover, a 2.5 wt.% of CB-formed networks within PLA composites, which added the fracture resistance in the weaker phase, thereby improving their mechanical properties. Beyond 2.5 wt.%, a linked skeletal grid was formed, enhancing the fracture path in a weaker phase and deteriorating the mechanical properties. Experimental results on density and elastic modulus were compared with the theoretical model predictions. This study gives an insight on interactions controlling physical and mechanical properties related to various processing techniques and weight percent of CB in PLA composites.

Nanotechnology, in general, and nanomaterials in particular, have conferred and are continuing to confer many benefits to mankind, just as the advent of "plastics" did in previous generations. In the case of carbon nanotubes, which can be produced in vast quantities, documented methods to manage this carbon nanotube waste by recycling and or safe disposal are so minimal that it is a matter of great concern that the paucity of studies on managing carbon nanotube waste may lead to complacency. The latter could be a trigger for human illnesses, through poor handling of carbon nanotube waste. The present study investigated ways to manage recycling and disposal of waste carbon nanotubes and a limited study of some aspects of the toxicity of waste carbon nanotubes in the environment. An eclectic approach was adopted for this study, involving an application and analysis of questionnaires, to ascertain the current practices used by practitioners in carbon nanotube research, as well as experimental work to determine the potential toxicity of carbon nanotubes. This investigation was undertaken to determine if a change from current practice is warranted in the light of the potential toxicity of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Analysis of the questionnaires revealed the use of differing practices for the recycling and disposal of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), implying that there is a dire need for a uniform code of practice. The toxicity study showed that carbon nanotubes did not kill earthworms in soil. However, worms were observed to be highly sensitive to increased concentrations of carbon nanotubes. The leaching in a soil column test showed that the movement of carbon nanotubes was inhibited, being confined mainly to the topmost layers of the soil. This is taken to imply that the water table is safe from possible contamination by CNTs.

This research focuses on the mechanical and effect of oil absorption on the tribological properties of carbon-based brake pad material (CBP). Carbon-based materials, including those at a nanosize, are combined for developed brake pad material. The mechanical properties related to wear properties such as compression strength, stiffness, hardness, and absorption properties were determined. The effect of oil absorption on the tribological properties of carbon-based materials was investigated. The obtained properties are compared with that of a ceramic-made brake pad (commercial). The experimental results show that the mechanical and absorption properties of the developed brake pad material varied with the combination and quantity of additives used to develop each brake pad material. CBP material offered higher performance than ceramic-made brake pads. The CBP material showed a higher shear strength of about 110%, 51% enhanced compressive strength, 35% greater modulus, comparative statistical hardness, 98% lesser water intake, and 97% oil absorption rate than ceramic made brake pad. The tribological properties of friction material after soaked in oil proved that absorption properties affect tribological properties of brake pads, which can be attributed to the oil content in the material system. The effect of oil uptakes on wear rate and friction of the commercial brake pad was higher than CBP materials, implying that the loading of carbon-based materials is a viable way to reduce absorption rate, which helps in increasing brake pad performance. The improved properties are suggestive of materials combinations that may be used to develop brake pad materials.

This chapter reviews the recent progress in tribological properties of 3D printed polymer nanocomposites and their applications. The printing of thermoplastic composite infused with different sizes of particles was reviewed. The processing of creating a 3D printed nanoparticle reinforced nanocomposite and their structure-property relations were discussed—valid information on several abrasion apparatus for tribological investigation was also provided. The influence of loading particles on the wear resistance and frictional behaviors of 3D printed nanoparticle reinforced nanocomposites were review. Similarly, the effect of applied load, speed (RPM), and sliding distance on the wear resistance and frictional behaviors of pure thermoplastic, including particle-filled composite, were also evaluated. The tribological properties concerning wear and friction were evaluated. The current application of 3D printed nanoparticle reinforced nanocomposites, and their revolutionary scope was also discussed.

Nanotechnology, in general, and nanomaterials in particular, have conferred and are continuing to confer many benefits to mankind, just as the advent of "plastics" did in previous generations. In the case of carbon nanotubes, which can be produced in vast quantities, documented methods to manage this carbon nanotube waste by recycling and or safe disposal are so minimal that it is a matter of great concern that the paucity of studies on managing carbon nanotube waste may lead to complacency. The latter could be a trigger for human illnesses, through poor handling of carbon nanotube waste. The present study investigated ways to manage recycling and disposal of waste carbon nanotubes and a limited study of some aspects of the toxicity of waste carbon nanotubes in the environment. An eclectic approach was adopted for this study, involving an application and analysis of questionnaires, to ascertain the current practices used by practitioners in carbon nanotube research, as well as experimental work to determine the potential toxicity of carbon nanotubes. This investigation was undertaken to determine if a change from current practice is warranted in the light of the potential toxicity of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Analysis of the questionnaires revealed the use of differing practices for the recycling and disposal of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), implying that there is a dire need for a uniform code of practice. The toxicity study showed that carbon nanotubes did not kill earthworms in soil. However, worms were observed to be highly sensitive to increased concentrations of carbon nanotubes. The leaching in a soil column test showed that the movement of carbon nanotubes was inhibited, being confined mainly to the topmost layers of the soil. This is taken to imply that the water table is safe from possible contamination by CNTs.

This work involves the study of the thermal, mechanical and physical properties of epoxy filled with nanoegg shell particles. Nanoegg shell particles of near uniform size and shape were prepared by high-speed ball milling technique. The influence of nanoegg shell particle concentration (1 to 5 wt.%) on epoxy curing rate, thermal stability, dynamic mechanical properties and the tensile, hardness, impact and water uptake properties was evaluated. The result showed improvement in most of these properties except for storage modulus in the rubbery phase. Microscopic examination revealed strong particle–matrix adhesion strength, with optimum improvement of all properties at 2 wt.% nanoegg shell filler concentration.

The present research work deals with the development of a novel polymer composite for brake pad applications. The composite that was used consists of epoxy resin, carbon fibre and carbon nanotubes in varying weight percentage. The tribological performance of three different samples was tested using a pin-on-disc under dry contact condition. The results indicated that the sample filled with short carbon fibres (SCF), and multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) had superior performance. Reduction in wear rate was observed due to synergism between SCF and MWCNT as compared to SCF only. Scanning electron microscopy was subsequently performed on all samples. The micrographs show changes in the structural formation after the incorporation of SCFs and MWCNT. This increased composite structural strength and explains why SCF and MWCNT’s hybrid-filled composite material has better tribological properties.

The objective of this work is to improve the thermal, mechanical and fiber-matrix adhesion properties of banana fibers using nanoclay particle infusion. The nanoclays were infused into the banana fibers by using alkaline and silane chemical treatments. The morphology and distribution of nanoclays in banana fiber was examined by scanning electron microscopy. Nanoclay infused fiber resulted in 35.7% and 12.5% increased tensile modulus and strength over untreated fiber, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis of nanoclay infused banana fiber shows ~ 2.2 times increased weight gain at 600°C when compared with untreated banana fiber.

Polymers in automotive applications have replaced the conventional metals; blending polymers has enhanced the use of polymers in automotive applications. Blending polymers in fabrication of automotive parts enhances structural strength, impact resistance, low and high temperature properties, and surface properties (for good printability). Polymer bends are corrosion resistance and light in weight than metals, which saves fuel and hence economic in automobile parts.

Analytical technique is one of the most powerful tools available for the study of atomic and molecular structure and is used in the analysis of most of the samples. Analytical technique or spectroscopy deals with the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. During the interaction, the energy is absorbed or emitted by the matter. The measurements of this radiation frequency (absorbed or emitted) are made using spectroscopy, providing detailed structural information on polymers for purposes required, i.e., quality control or research and development.

The objective of this work is to study the tribological properties of natural fiber based composites using nanotechnology. The naturally available banana plant fibers were treated with nanoclay particles, and these treated fibers were then reinforced in an epoxy polymer to form composites. The friction and wear properties of nanoclay-treated banana fiber (NC-BF) reinforced composites were compared with untreated banana fiber (UT-BF) reinforced composites. Short NC-BF- and UT-BF-reinforced composites with fiber concentration ranging from 20 wt % to 60 wt % were prepared by the vacuum resin infusion processing method. The result indicates that the NC-BF-reinforced composites have shown improved friction and wear properties. Microscopy examination revealed that NC-BF-reinforced composites were able to form a transfer layer between the wear test specimen wear surface and counter face, resulting in improved wear properties. The nanoclay particles also induce increased hardness and friction to the composites and improve braking properties.

Density measurements (i.e., physical magnitude) are quick, efficient, and crucial in determining the structure and quality of solid materials. For polymer composites, properties tend to increase, decrease, or both with density. In this work, poly(lactic acid) composites (PLAC) filled with carbon black (CB), multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were prepared using the dissolution–dispersion method (DD) and oligomeric–dispersion method (OD). To study the hybrid effect, PLAC with 2.5 weight percent (wt%) CB + MWCNTs (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0wt%) and 2.5wt% CB + CNFs (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0wt%) were prepared using DD and OD. Density measurements were performed on PLAC to determine the extent of dispersion and interphase characteristics. PLAC prepared by OD showed an increase in density values in comparison to DD, irrespective of the filler.

Background This study aimed to determine the physicochemical characteristics of an eggshell-based dental abrasive material. Methods The eggshell powder abrasive material (EPAM) was synthesized by ball milling eggshell powder and surfactants. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and a laser diffraction particle size analyzer (PSA) were used to characterize EPAM. In addition, the abrasive characteristics of EPAM were evaluated by comparison using poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) resins. Surface roughness (Ra) was measured using a profilometer. Results The FTIR spectroscopy and XRD analysis confirmed that the carbonate product was primarily calcite (97.3%) with traces of graphite 2H (1.3%) and thenardite (1.4%). The TEM imagery revealed irregular particles in EPAM. The PSA analysis of the particle size distribution showed EPAM to be a superfine powder (0.3 μm to 50 nm). In addition, the 50-nm EPAM (Ra = 0.04 μm) measured the lowest Ra value when compared with pumice (Ra = 0.08 μm). Conclusions The salient features of this study indicate that EPAM can naturally replace calcite, which is generally mined and used as a dental abrasive material. In addition, and regarding the abrasive characteristics of EPAM in reducing the surface roughness of PMMA resin specimens, this study conclusively showed that EPAM effectively reduces the surface roughness below the threshold limit value of 0.2 μm. Potentially, EPAM could reduce waste disposal problems while enabling an economic benefit from using eggshell waste material.