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The territory of modern Turkey is abundant in ancient monuments of a various kind and historical periods. Among most notable ones are the ruins of the ancient Hittites capital near modern settlement of Boğazköy / Hattuşaş. The remains of the stone structures located in that area have been studied for more than a century and there are many documented discoveries. However, some of these discoveries are still lacking a reliable scientific research data. For that reason, such objects often become popular subjects for discussions by visitors with a wide variety of views. This also applies for the green stone monolith in its shape similar to a cube, located in Hattusa. The time and purpose of the installation and shaping of that stone is unknown, which has given rise to dozens of folklore stories talking about the importance of this stone block, called also as a "wish stone", where both secret cults and evidence of aliens' technologies and invasions are present. Current study is based on a systematic analysis of images of this green stone artifact, which allowed us to access the damages visible on exposed surfaces of this object. The study is more of a methodological orientation, although some of the similarities in images found on the exposed stone surfaces, indicate the connection of this object with the Ancient Egyptian culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are several thousand stone-shaped megalithic stone piles in Europe that have been built between the late Stone Age and the Middle Ages. Their cultural and historical significance has been deliberately studied only in a small number of cases. It is not surprising, therefore, that different stories about such megalithic sites are more widely known than the results of archaeological research. This is particularly true for impressive prehistoric complexes, which today are transformed into tourist attractions. One of the most remarkable areas of megalithic cultural monuments is Brittany, where Carnac alignments are the most spectacular place among many outstanding monuments. Here, megalithic structures have been the focus of attention since the middle of the 18th century, and identification of this site went hand in hand with Megalithomania and Celtomania. Archaeological research here begun only in 1877 and continues with different intensities also today. However, significant corrections were made by numerous reconstructions on site, which today makes research difficult. Our study was conducted in 2018 and included four important sites - Alignements du Menec, Alignements de Kermario, Alignements de Kerlescan, Alignements du Petit-Menec. These are very large monuments with a total of several thousand standing stones including several tumulus, dolmens and cromlech. The study shows that only tumulus are in their original location, which characterizes the second phase of the megalithic structures of this area. The buildings of earlier stages have been dismantled and divided into separate elements from which alignments have been erected. In turn, the stones of smaller size from dismantled structures have served as a stone wall material for the separation of fields and mark the time when it has occurred. But at the final stage these rows of stones have been modified and supplemented with other stones to form geometric shapes – semicircles and squares. It has been found that almost all stones are marked with fragments of signs and symbols, there are a lot of such signs and it would useful to study them in detail. The analysis carried out indicates that also other stne formation and stone monuments of similar kind could be studies likewise. That would allow the purposeful direction of ancient history and archaeological research in the region, even if it would take several decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maltese megalithic temples are well known in the world as an outstanding prehistoric cultural heritage. Many of these ancient sites nowadays are included in the World Heritage List of UNESCO. These temple complexes have been built over a wide period of time - between ca. 3600 BC and 700 BC. They have been archaeologically studied several times and the most important temples have been reconstructed, which allows describing the prehistory of Malta rather completely. The significant value of these temples is in their remarkable dimensions, which allow these temples to be identified as building complexes. Almost all of these ancient temples were built in several stages and the traces of creation and reconstruction of these temples already in prehistoric times are still recognizable. It allows us to study and analyse in detail the results of local innovation in a process of cultural evolution. However, much less attention so far has been paid to the stone material used in the construction of Malta's megalithic temple complexes. Our study performs an examination of individual elements in two megalithic temples of Ggantija historical phase – Mnajdra and Ggantija temples. Current research enabled us to identify even more ancient stone material used in the construction of the Ggantija temple. In turn, the studies at Mnajdra temple revealed peculiar ornament formed of decorative drilled holes on the surface of the megalithic stones recognizable as well-developed pattern design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interest in ancient religions and their sources, essence and artefacts in society is increasing, which is a new feature of our age and requires many values to be reassessed. Among them, there are many low-quality sources and unreliable indications, as well as fakes and simple replicas of artefacts. There is always a lot of contradictive information in the media and it takes several years for researchers to refute it. However, such situation has certain positive elements as well, since such refusals require the development of unconventional research techniques. The subject discussed in this study is the Buddhist statue found by Nazi and made from meteorite, which was a socially relevant topic a few years ago, especially in Austria and Germany. Such cases are not unique, therefore it would be important to develop rather simple and non-destructive techniques that would make it possible to identify copies produced in the near past and distinguish them from genuine ancient artefacts and historical monuments. Current study indicates that it is possible to develop and successfully apply such methodologies to expose falsifications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crete is well known as a possessor of one of the most ancient cultural layers of Ancient Greece. At the same time the oldest cultural stages at Crete are quite different. These differences are most often identified in the outstanding archaeological cultures of the Bronze Age, complemented by a large number of high value historical monuments. In contrast, the historical period between Prehistoric Crete and Minoan Civilization is studied only fragmentary. The evidence and ruins of monuments of this final stage of the Stone Age are not fully revealed in the mainland of Greece as well, where they are commonly called cyclopical structures. However, these structures were mostly built in the middle of the Bronze Age or even later. On the island of Crete the search for megalithic Stone Age monuments and their ruins was carried out in the spring of 2019 and one of the most outstanding fragments of such monument was located near Ancient Eleutherna tower. Despite of numerous reconstruction and relocation works carried out in this area, individual blocks of the ancient megalithic building have remained on site and have not been moved due to their size. Perhaps these stones were regarded as kind of support for the fortification structure of Ancient Eleutherna and for centuries these stone blocks, which also bear fragments of ancient signs, have remained on site unnoticed. Similarly, individual fragments of ancient monuments were also located in other parts of Crete, which indicates that it would be useful to identify and document these ancient structures systematically in the future. For Crete it could be effectively achieved by developing remote sensing techniques with appropriate GIS coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are several hundreds of stone circles known in the northern Europe. Most of them were created during the time period from the late Stone Age until Middle Ages. However, their historical significance has been studied and evaluated only in a small number of cases. More often these stone circles are considered as peculiar nature formations, connected with the local folklore. The stone circles locate in the northern part of Poland were mainly studied since the beginning of the last century and the time of their creation was estimated as 2nd - 1st century BC. These stone circles were transformed several times and thus lost their initial significance. However, extensive material and documentation research carried out in 2017 demonstrates that most of the stones were processed using different tools in various historical periods. By analysing the way of processing, the technology and tools used for these purposes, we were able to distinguish three different groups of stones. These groups characterize the processing of stones in the last century, in the Iron Age and also in the Bronze Age. The last group of stones is the most significant since it characterizes ancient megalithic culture in terms of the use of secondary stone material for creation of stone circles. These stones were processed with the stone tools, often giving anthropomorphic shape. The surface of these stones was carefully evened and some of them are still bearing cut signs. During the Iron Age the stones were shaped as pillars, sometimes having also orthogonal shape. The tool marks are still clearly visible, allowing us to evaluate the dimensions of the tools and the technique of processing. The surface of the stones was processed roughly and simply. The stones added to the circles during the last century were coarsely cut using iron tools, the shape was not specified or given at all, and the surface was poorly processed. Our study denotes that such approach could also be applied to analysis of other stone circles and stacks. This would allow us to promote purposeful historical and archaeological studies in particular region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mortuary temple of king Mentuhotep II and queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari, Egypt, are well-known as remarkable monuments of architecture, construction, and the changes in religious beliefs of Ancient Egypt. However, the main aspects of selecting the location for the construction of these temples and the meaning of the selected location are described only within the studies of Theban necropolis complex that appeared in the later years. Therefore, the possible conditions that could have served as the basis for the choice of location for the mortuary temples have been investigated in this study. Undoubtedly, this particular place was very important since the hidden Valley of the Kings and glorious Hatshepsut's Temple of Millions of Years were constructed in the vicinity of Mentuhotep's II temple complex many centuries later. However, each of these monuments had various reasons for their location and the existence of Mentuhotep's II mortuary temple had to be taken into account. Our study indicates that the special significance of Deir el-Bahri site is related to many older cults, based on the recognition of the anthropomorphic images in the rock cliffs above the temple. Most likely they can be identified as a symbol of Osiris, which is still partly recognizable today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ancient Bronze Age nuraghes civilization has left rich cultural heritage where major role plays characteristic tower-shaped buildings most widely spread at Sardinia. The purpose of these structures is unknown, yet the studies have confirmed that these are ancient necropolis structures and they were rebuilt several times for similar purposes. All this makes their studies and interpretation very difficult. Our study allows us to associate these nuraghes structures with the necropolis functions and probably significant changes in the religious perceptions. Most likely these tower-shaped structures initially were built as the Towers of Silence, but later rebuilt for the need of other sacral rituals. These phases can be identified analysing the quality of the stone material used for the construction and the intensity of decay of the exposed surfaces of stones. However, the tower-shaped stone structures harmoniously fit in the environment and can be considered as semi-natural geological heritage monuments of high value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stone material used in the construction of many ancient monuments of cultural heritage decayed during centuries losing its properties. Traditionally such stone material was gradually replaced with the stone material of similar quality. However, the preliminary studies of the replacing material are carried out rarely. Therefore, the information on the reasons provoking the decay of the material is lacking; yet, it would be necessary to obtain such data in order to evaluate the necessary reconstruction work and in the case of larger monuments - to choose the most appropriate conservation strategy. Our study was carried out in several medieval monuments located on the islands of the Mediterranean region and in most details - the basilica of San Gavino at Sardinia. The studies allowed us to identify at least six different stone material weathering types with five different weathering intensities. Additionally, certain genetic order of these weathering types was noted - the sequence how the stone material has weathered and lost its properties. This allowed us to elaborate the stone material decay monitoring system, providing an opportunity to develop well timed measures for monument's preservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditionally it is assumed, that the observed diversity of pigments in prehistoric times depended on our ancestors' knowledge on locating sources of raw materials. The application of basic colours very often was associated only with certain ritual activities, simple life style and limited basic needs. Probably it could be attributed to particular prehistoric cultures and to a limited period of time. Our study demonstrates that the general trend is related to the evolution of colour vision and possibilities of humans to distinguish the variety of pigmentation. These are not simple skills or the gifts of nature. By the development of abstract thinking, the demand for diversity of colours rose rapidly and simple colour tones were supplemented with different shades, various intensities, the images became polychromatic and multilayered. Before commencing the painting, the surface was evened and background colour layer was applied. The paintings were made applying different pigments. In this context the necessity to locate raw material sources for variable pigments or to process them artificially is likely a consequence of the necessity for particular result rather than a simple motivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tradition to stop the clocks, draw the curtains and cover all mirrors in the house right after the death of one of the inhabitants was still widely spread in the last century. It actually appeared only in the end of 18th century and the beginning of 19th century. This tradition mostly is associated with the Victorian time traditions and the raise of mysticism after the periods of great plague. The mirrors were used also by grave-diggers to ascertain the death of the deceased and make sure there are no signs of life left. The short-lasting tradition of putting the cullet of mirror into the grave appeared in Europe along with the belief that broken mirror can cause misfortune or even death. In the same time, mirrors were used in numerous cults of the dead and their meaning was quite different. Most of them are related to reflections, transparency and deformed images, as well as various interpretations of the visage. There are several general regularities traceable in prehistoric and the following historic times. Most of them reflect the initial provenance and fragmentary heritability of many modern beliefs and customs that were simplified only during last centuries and in general pertained to mirrors and reflections in them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nuraghes, large stone structures in Sardinia, are the important evidence of ancient culture. There were more than 8000 nuraghes located on the island, yet only 1500 were discovered. It makes the whole Sardinia an outstanding Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological open-air exhibition and museum of cultural heritage. Up to now almost all these monuments were related to Bronze Age buildings and most often interpreted as fortification structures. The studies carried out in 2014 and 2015 denote that the initial choice of the location for these monuments and their placement on site do not confirm with this hypothesis. The analysis of the building material reveals at least 3 or 4 very different construction stages that modify previous structures in order to suite other purposes of use. Taking into consideration only final stage of construction of several structures, leads to erroneous conclusions and generalized interpretation of these buildings as fortification structures. As the main important indicator to identify different construction stages should be the building stone - its quality, shape and surface processing, deterioration degree, quality of the mortar applied, placement of the construction blocks and thickness of the walls. The application of these indicators allows us to develop several evolutionary models of nuraghes structures and visualize them digitally in the future. At the current stage of our study these complex buildings most probably should be regarded as sacral structures, that later were reconstructed into storehouses and only in the final stage rebuild to serve as fortification and inhabitants' information structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study has been carried out in the Garajonay National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage, located in the center and north of the island of La Gomera, one of the Canary Islands. This National park has several ancient ritual places, which after the archaeological excavations in the 1950's have been partly reconstructed. One of the most valuable discoveries during these excavations was the Circular stone. A nondestructive study method has been used to analyze the surface of this stone. The detailed photo documentation and further assessment of the exposed surfaces of the stone was performed in order to identify artificially made deformations of the stone surface as evidence left by ancient people. The elaborated methodology allowed us to identify and group human made carvings, nowadays visible as separate lines and their groups, as well as fragments of signs and symbols. Such approach could also be applied in the studies of other poorly preserved stone material objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pyramid of Userkaf, the first king of the 5th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (ca. 2494- 2487 BC) is one of the World Heritage monuments located on Saqqara plateau Necropolis in Egypt. Like most of the Ancient Egypt's monuments, this pyramid is almost in ruins and its preservation is a challenge for modern conservators and engineers. Currently, the pyramid is in a very bad condition and most of the main building elements can be recognized only thanks to the previous archaeological studies carried out on site. The structure of the pyramid is also severely affected by earthquakes. The elaborated 3D model of the pyramid allows us to make conclusions regarding the building process of the pyramid, to evaluate the stability and current state of preservation of the pyramid's stone material and mortar, as well as to reconstruct initial shape and dimensions of the monument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Step Pyramid at Saqqara is the oldest stone monument in the world and its dimensions are still very impressive. During more than 4500 years this building has suffered from physical weathering and seismic activities and requires vast reconstruction. Our current study reveals a major damage in the basic structure of the pyramid affecting its integrity; the exposed surface of the stone building material has large degree of deterioration. The faults and cracks as well as intensity of weathering (loss of stone material, rounding and surface detachment of construction blocks) of the pyramid's facades were studied. The results of the study reveal uneven dispersion of the damage on the pyramid's facades due to weather conditions and varying quality of the building material and cement applied. The 3D visualization of the Step Pyramid and further calculations of deterioration data enabled us to determine actual scale of the damage as well as potential threats to be taken into consideration during elaboration of the reconstruction plans for this monument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuous deterioration of historical stone monuments mainly due to weathering is a growing concern. Precise documentation of the monument becomes very important for elaboration of sustainable monument remedy and preservation plan. The method elaborated by the authors allows to create a 3D model of the object with the further possibility to supplement and integrate into this model various visual and data information and systematically update it. This method was developed for the stone material surface weathering studies of the Step Pyramid of Djoser in Egypt, but it also can be applied to the studies of other historical monuments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild and cultivated berries from forests and bogs of Northern Europe are an excellent source of natural antioxidants, vitamins and fatty acids, all of which are substances with high biological activity. One of ways of berry processing includes production of berry juices leaving as a waste berry press residues. The aim of this study was to consider possibilities to use berry press residues as a source of polyphenolics, to optimise their extraction conditions and characterise the obtained extracts. The following berries were analysed: blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum L.), two cultivars of highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.), black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum L.) and cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos L.). Yield of biologically active substances in extracts influence the polarity of extrahents and procedure of extraction: extraction method (treatment with ultrasound, conventional, Soxlet extraction, treatment with microwaves, and extraction with supercritical CO2), solid-liquid ratio and others. Using surface response method optimisation of the extraction conditions was done, resulting in high yields of the polyphenolics. The composition of the obtained extracts was characterised using UPLC as well as HPLC-MS. In the obtained extracts main classes of polyphenolics were identified. The analysed berry polyphenolic profiles were compared using the principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. The two analyses showed that the polyphenolic profiles of the studied berries reflect their taxonomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]