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On Jan. 5, 2018, at the request of NASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Committee on the Decadal Survey for Earth Science and Applications from Space (ESAS) of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) Space Studies Board, Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences released the 2017 Decadal Survey, “Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A Decadal Strategy for Earth Observations from Space” [1]. The 700-page document is the second such Earth sciences survey produced by NASEM. The first, “Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond,” was released in 2007. The 2018 study designated a global “Surface Biology and Geology” (SBG) investigation that would include both imaging spectroscopy and thermal infrared observations [1]. This suite of measurements would address a wide range of global science questions. Its themes include: flows of energy, carbon, water, and nutrients sustaining terrestrial and marine ecosystems; the variability of the land surface and the fluxes of water and energy; inventory of the world's volcanoes, and the composition and temperature of volcanic products immediately following eruptions; other natural hazards including wildfires; snow accumulation and melt; water balance from the headwaters to the continent; land and water use effects on evapotranspiration; functional traits and diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and vegetation; and more. Figure 1 shows example spectra from these surfaces, illustrating the enormous diversity of scene content that would be observed. Tables 1 and 2 show examples of the core and higher-level products that the SBG mission would produce.

The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) Pathfinder (CPF) mission consists of a high accuracy reflected solar spectrometer that will take measurements from the International Space Station for one year starting in 2023. CPF will demonstrate that its novel on-orbit absolute calibration approaches are capable of achieving 0.3% (1-sigma) radiometric uncertainty. Additionally, using its two-axis pointing gimbal which enables nearly-concurrent measurements matching look angles with other orbiting sensors, CPF will demonstrate a novel inter-calibration approach by inter-calibrating CERES and VIIRS. CPF is currently in its Final Design and Fabrication Stage and recently passed its Critical Design Review.

The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) is leading the CEOS Analysis Ready Data for Land (CARD4L) initiative. A goal of analysis ready data products is to limit the effort needed by users to pre-process the data allowing them to concentrate on the end products. CARD4L provides a set of specifications that data providers need to meet to be considered to satisfy CARD4L. One of the working groups within CEOS, the Working Group on Calibration and Validation (WGCV) is providing a peer review process to evaluate the documentation of the data providers validation and data product accuracy assessment. The approach makes use of the expertise within WGCV to collaborate with both the CEOS Land Surface Imaging Virtual Constellation and the data providers to work towards acceptance of the provider’s data product as CARD4L.

The foundation for future space mission Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) is the ability to produce climate change benchmark records and provide on-orbit calibration standard through the highly accurate and Systeme Internationale -traceable observations. The accuracy of CLARREO measurements is set to 0.3% $(k=2)$ for spectrally resolved reflectance. The instrument sensitivity to polarization and polarization of reflected light at the top of atmosphere are the sources for systematic uncertainty. In this paper, we estimate radiometric errors due to polarization effects for CLARREO benchmark and reference intercalibration observations. Data from the Polarization and Anisotropy of Reflectance for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from Lidar (PARASOL) instrument, a spaceborne polarimeter, have been used in combination with the orbital modeling of Earth's sampling. For the CLARREO benchmark data, we used simulated annual nadir sampling for the polar orbit with 90° inclination, and for the intercalibration with cross-track sensors on the JPSS, such as CERES and VIIRS, we simulated on-orbit matched data sampling. Selected PARASOL data over one full solar year provided polarization parameters in visible (VIS) spectral range. For estimating polarization in near infrared (NIR) spectral range, we used a radiative transfer model. Our results show that to limit error contribution due to polarization to half of the allowed total, the sensitivity to polarization of CLARREO reflected solar instrument should not exceed 0.5% $(k=2)$ in spectral range from VIS to NIR.

Ground reflectance was acquired at the Railroad Valley Playa calibration site in Nevada USA using different methods of collection. The data was collected near the time and date of Landsat 8 OLI and Sentinel-2 satellite overpasses so an inter-comparison could be made with the reflectance products to determine which method was more suitable for vicarious calibration. The field spectrometers and reference panels were characterized before the field campaign. A continuous acquisition method was compared to stop and measure collections. Both acquisition methods were collected along an 80 m east-west transect as well as for a series of north-south transects over an 80 × 320 m area, with the stop and measure method being performed at random sampling locations. The measurements were performed using two field spectrometers by three teams of two people to compare the repeatability. The aim of the field campaign was to determine the variability due to the operator and the method of collection.

Earth surfaces, such as deserts, salt lakes, and playas, have been widely used in the vicarious radiometric calibration of optical earth observation satellites. In 2009, the Infrared and Visible Optical Sensors (IVOS) sub-group of the Committee of Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) Working Group on Calibration and Validation (WGCV) designated eight LANDNET reference sites to focus international efforts, facilitate traceability and enable the establishment of measurement "best practices." With support from the European Space Agency (ESA), one of the LANDNET sites, the Tuz Gölü salt lake located in central Turkey, was selected to host a cross-comparison of measurement instrumentation and methodologies conducted by 11 different ground teams across the globe. This paper provides an overview of the preliminary results of the cross-comparison of the ground-based spectral measurements made during the CEOS Land Comparison 13-27 August, 2010 with the simultaneous satellite image data acquisitions of the same site.

Satellite instruments operating in the reflective solar wavelength region require accurate and precise determination of the Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Functions (BRDFs) of the laboratory and flight diffusers used in their pre-flight and on-orbit calibrations. This paper advances that initial work and presents a comparison of spectral Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) and Directional Hemispherical Reflectance (DHR) of Spectralon*, a common material for laboratory and on-orbit flight diffusers. A new measurement setup for BRDF measurements from 900 nm to 2500 nm located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is described. The GSFC setup employs an extended indium gallium arsenide detector, bandpass filters, and a supercontinuum light source. Comparisons of the GSFC BRDF measurements in the shortwave infrared (SWIR) with those made by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Spectral Tri-function Automated Reference Reflectometer (STARR) are presented. The Spectralon sample used in this study was 2 inch diameter, 99% white pressed and sintered Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) target. The NASA/NIST BRDF comparison measurements were made at an incident angle of 0° and viewing angle of 45°. Additional BRDF data not compared to NIST were measured at additional incident and viewing angle geometries and are not presented here. The total combined uncertainty for the measurement of BRDF in the SWIR range made by the GSFC scatterometer is less than 1% (k = 1). This study is in support of the calibration of the Radiation Budget Instrument (RBI) and Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suit (VIIRS) instruments of the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) and other current and future NASA remote sensing missions operating across the reflected solar wavelength region.

Knowledge of calibration traceability is essential for ensuring the quality of data products relying on multiple sensors and especially true for imaging spectrometers. The current work discusses the expected impact that imaging spectrometers have in ensuring radiometric traceability for both multispectral and hyperspectral products. The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory Pathfinder mission is used to show the role that high-accuracy imaging spectrometers can play in understanding test sites used for vicarious calibration of sensors. The associated Solar, Lunar for Absolute Reflectance Imaging Spectroradiometer calibration demonstration system is used to illustrate recent advances in laboratory radiometric calibration approaches that will allow both the use of imaging spectrometers as calibration standards as well as to ensure the consistency of the multiple imaging spectrometers expected to be on orbit in the next decade.

One of the objectives of CLARREO Pathfinder mission is to demonstrate on-orbit data matching for sensor inter-calibration The CLARREO Pathfinder approach for reference inter-calibration is based on measuring spectral reflectance with high accuracy and establishing an on-orbit reference for operating Earth viewing sensors: CERES and VIIRS on JPSS. The mission goal is to be able to provide CLARREO reference observations that are matched in temporal and angular domains with measurements from the aforementioned instruments, with sampling sufficient to overcome the random error sources from imperfect data matching. The inter-calibration method is to monitor changes in targeted sensor response function parameters: effective offset, gain, nonlinearity, spectral response function, and sensitivity to polarization. In this paper, we focus on estimating uncertainty for inter-calibration of imaging sensors such as VIIRS.

Changes in the directional reflectance properties of pressed and sintered polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) diffusers induced by exposure to vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) irradiation before and after controlled contamination with Pennzane are presented in this paper. A set of 99% reflective, white, optical grade diffuse calibration standards were irradiated with a VUV source positioned at 60? to the diffuser normal. The bidirectional reflectance distribution functions before and after contamination and VUV irradiation were measured and compared at a number of scatter geometries and wavelengths in the UV, VIS and IR spectral ranges. The 8? directional hemispherical reflectance?s were also measured and compared from 200?nm to 2500?nm. Our results indicate a measureable impact of VUV irradiation on pressed and sintered PTFE diffusers as manifested by a directional dependent change in their reflectance. Such an effect needs to be considered in the on-orbit deployment of PTFE diffusers.

The implementation of the Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission was recommended by the National Research Council in 2007 to provide an on-orbit intercalibration standard with accuracy of 0.3% $(k = 2)$ for relevant Earth observing sensors. The goal of reference intercalibration, as established in the Decadal Survey, is to enable rigorous high-accuracy observations of critical climate change parameters, including reflected broadband radiation [Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES)], cloud properties [Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS)], and changes in surface albedo, including snow and ice albedo feedback. In this paper, we describe the CLARREO approach for performing intercalibration on orbit in the reflected solar (RS) wavelength domain. It is based on providing highly accurate spectral reflectance and reflected radiance measurements from the CLARREO Reflected Solar Spectrometer (RSS) to establish an on-orbit reference for existing sensors, namely, CERES and VIIRS on Joint Polar Satellite System satellites, Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer and follow-on imagers on MetOp, Landsat imagers, and imagers on geostationary platforms. One of two fundamental CLARREO mission goals is to provide sufficient sampling of high-accuracy observations that are matched in time, space, and viewing angles with measurements made by existing instruments, to a degree that overcomes the random error sources from imperfect data matching and instrument noise. The data matching is achieved through CLARREO RSS pointing operations on orbit that align its line of sight with the intercalibrated sensor. These operations must be planned in advance; therefore, intercalibration events must be predicted by orbital modeling. If two competing opportunities are identified, one target sensor must be given priority over the other. The intercalibration method is to monitor changes in targeted sensor response function parameters: effective offset, gain, nonlinearity, optics spectral response, and sensitivity to polarization. In this paper, we use existing satellite data and orbital simulation methods to determine mission requirements for CLARREO, its instrument pointing ability, methodology, and needed intercalibration sampling and data matching for accurate intercalibration of RS radiation sensors on orbit. We conclude that with the CLARREO RSS in a polar 90 $^{\circ}$ inclination orbit at a 609-km altitude, estimated intercalibration sampling will limit the uncertainty contribution from data matching noise to 0.3% $(k = 2)$ over the climate autocorrelation time period. The developed orbital modeling and intercalibration event prediction will serve as a framework for future mission operations.

Highly accurate measurements of Earth’s thermal infrared and reflected solar radiation are required for detecting and predicting long-term climate change. Consideration is given to the concept of using the International Space Station to test instruments and techniques that would eventually be used on a dedicated mission, such as the Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO). In particular, a quantitative investigation is performed to determine whether it is possible to use measurements obtained with a highly accurate (0.3%, with 95% confidence) reflected solar radiation spectrometer to calibrate similar, less accurate instruments in other low Earth orbits. Estimates of numbers of samples useful for intercalibration are made with the aid of yearlong simulations of orbital motion. Results of this study support the conclusion that the International Space Station orbit is ideally suited for the purpose of intercalibration between spaceborne sensors.

Satellite instruments operating in the reflected solar wavelength region require accurate and precise determination of the optical properties of their diffusers used in pre-flight and post-flight calibrations. The majority of recent and current space instruments use reflective diffusers. As a result, numerous Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) calibration comparisons have been conducted between the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other industry and university-based metrology laboratories. However, based on literature searches and communications with NIST and other laboratories, no Bidirectional Transmittance Distribution Function (BTDF) measurement comparisons have been conducted between National Measurement Laboratories (NMLs) and other metrology laboratories. On the other hand, there is a growing interest in the use of transmissive diffusers in the calibration of satellite, air-borne, and ground-based remote sensing instruments. Current remote sensing instruments employing transmissive diffusers include the Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite instrument (OMPS) Limb instrument on the Suomi-National Polar-orbiting Partnership (S-NPP) platform,, the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) on the Korea Aerospace Research Institute's (KARI) Communication, Ocean, and Meteorological Satellite (COMS), the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) Aura platform, the Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring of Pollution (TEMPO) instrument and the Geostationary Environmental Monitoring Spectrometer (GEMS).. This ensemble of instruments requires validated BTDF measurements of their on-board transmissive diffusers from the ultraviolet through the near infrared. This paper presents the preliminary results of a BTDF comparison between the NASA Diffuser Calibration Laboratory (DCL) and NIST on quartz and thin Spectralon samples.

The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission will provide a calibration laboratory in orbit for the purpose of accurately measuring and attributing climate change. CLARREO measurements establish new climate change benchmarks with high absolute radiometric accuracy and high statistical confidence across a wide range of essential climate variables. CLARREO's inherently high absolute accuracy will be verified and traceable on orbit to Système Internationale (SI) units. The benchmarks established by CLARREO will be critical for assessing changes in the Earth system and climate model predictive capabilities for decades into the future as society works to meet the challenge of optimizing strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change. The CLARREO benchmarks are derived from measurements of the Earth's thermal infrared spectrum (5–50 μm), the spectrum of solar radiation reflected by the Earth and its atmosphere (320–2300 nm), and radio occultation refractivity from which accurate temperature profiles are derived. The mission has the ability to provide new spectral fingerprints of climate change, as well as to provide the first orbiting radiometer with accuracy sufficient to serve as the reference transfer standard for other space sensors, in essence serving as a “NIST [National Institute of Standards and Technology] in orbit.” CLARREO will greatly improve the accuracy and relevance of a wide range of space-borne instruments for decadal climate change. Finally, CLARREO has developed new metrics and methods for determining the accuracy requirements of climate observations for a wide range of climate variables and uncertainty sources. These methods should be useful for improving our understanding of observing requirements for most climate change observations.

An inter-calibration method is developed to provide absolute radiometric calibration of narrow-swath imaging sensors with reference to non-coincident wide-swath sensors. The method predicts at-sensor radiance using non-coincident imagery from the reference sensor and knowledge of spectral reflectance of the test site. The imagery of the reference sensor is restricted to acquisitions that provide similar view and solar illumination geometries to reduce uncertainties due to directional reflectance effects. Spectral reflectance of the test site is found with a simple iterative radiative transfer method using radiance values of a well-understood wide-swath sensor and spectral shape information based on historical ground-based measurements. At-sensor radiance is calculated for the narrow-swath sensor using this spectral reflectance and atmospheric parameters that are also based on historical in-situ measurements. Results of the inter-calibration method show agreement on the 2-5% level in most spectral regions with the vicarious calibration technique relying on coincident ground-based measurements referred to as the reflectance-based approach. While the variability of the inter-calibration method based on non-coincident image pairs is significantly larger, results are consistent with techniques relying on in-situ measurements. The method is also insensitive to spectral differences between the sensors by transferring to surface spectral reflectance prior to prediction of at-sensor radiance. The utility of this inter-calibration method is made clear by its flexibility to utilize image pairings with acquisition dates differing in excess of 30 days allowing frequent absolute calibration comparisons between wide- and narrow-swath sensors.

There exist numerous methods for accomplishing on-orbit calibration. Methods include the reflectance-based approach relying on measurements of surface and atmospheric properties at the time of a sensor overpass as well as invariant scene approaches relying on knowledge of the temporal characteristics of the site. The current work examines typical cross-calibration methods and discusses the expected uncertainties of the methods. Data from the Advanced Land Imager (ALI), Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection and Radiometer (ASTER), Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Thematic Mapper (TM) are used to demonstrate the limits of relative sensor-to-sensor calibration as applied to current sensors while Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ are used to evaluate the limits of in situ site characterizations for SI-traceable cross calibration. The current work examines the difficulties in trending of results from cross-calibration approaches taking into account sampling issues, site-to-site variability, and accuracy of the method. Special attention is given to the differences caused in the cross-comparison of sensors in radiance space as opposed to reflectance space. The results show that cross calibrations with absolute uncertainties

One of the Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission objectives is to provide a high accuracy calibration standard on orbit to enable inter-calibration of existing sensors. In order to perform an accurate inter-calibration of imaging radiometers, such as VIIRS, one must take into account instrument sensitivity to polarization of incoming light. Even if the sensitivity to polarization of an instrument is established or known on orbit, the knowledge of the polarization state of reflected light is required to make relevant radiometric corrections. In the case when coincident polarimetric measurements are not available, we propose to use a combination of empirical and theoretical models to predict the polarization of solar reflected light at the top-of-atmosphere. We used observations from on-orbit polarimeter PARASOL to derive a global set of empirical Polarization Distribution Models (PDM) as a function of scene type and viewing geometry. The PDM accuracy for the mean values is estimated to match the 3% PARASOL uncertainty in its polarization measurements. The instantaneous single sample uncertainty of the prototype PDMs for the linear degree of polarization is contained within 15%. We also present the formalism and numeric estimates for resulting uncertainty for inter-calibration of an imaging radiometer with the CLARREO reference observations, including uncertainty due to instrument sensitivity to polarization. The uncertainty estimates consider a range of scenarios with varying data sampling, uncertainty of polarization, and imaging radiometer sensitivity to polarization. These results are used to recommend CLARREO mission requirements relevant to reference inter-calibration and polarization effects.

The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission is formulated to determine long-term climate trends using SI-traceable measurements. The CLARREO mission will include instruments operating in the reflected solar (RS) wavelength region from 320 nm to 2300 nm. The Solar, Lunar for Absolute Reflectance Imaging Spectroradiometer (SOLARIS) is the calibration demonstration system (CDS) for the reflected solar portion of CLARREO and facilitates testing and evaluation of calibration approaches. The basis of CLARREO and SOLARIS calibration is the Goddard Laser for Absolute Measurement of Response (GLAMR) that provides a radiance-based calibration at reflective solar wavelengths using continuously tunable lasers. SI-traceability is achieved via detector-based standards that, in GLAMRs case, are a set of NIST-calibrated transfer radiometers. A portable version of the SOLARIS, Suitcase SOLARIS is used to evaluate GLAMRs calibration accuracies. The calibration of Suitcase SOLARIS using GLAMR agrees with that obtained from source-based results of the Remote Sensing Group (RSG) at the University of Arizona to better than 5 (k2) in the 720-860 nm spectral range. The differences are within the uncertainties of the NIST-calibrated FEL lamp-based approach of RSG and give confidence that GLAMR is operating at 5 (k2) absolute uncertainties. Limitations of the Suitcase SOLARIS instrument also discussed and the next edition of the SOLARIS instrument (Suitcase SOLARIS- 2) is expected to provide an improved mechanism to further assess GLAMR and CLARREO calibration approaches. (2016) COPYRIGHT Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE).

Knowledge of uncertainties and errors are essential for comparisons of remote sensing data across time, space, and spectral domains. Vicarious radiometric calibration is used to demonstrate the need for uncertainty knowledge and to provide an example error budget. The sample error budget serves as an example of the questions and issues that need to be addressed by the calibration/validation community as accuracy requirements for imaging spectroscopy data will continue to become more stringent in the future. Error budgets will also be critical to ensure consistency between the range of imaging spectrometers expected to be launched in the next five years.

The Landsat-7 ETM+ sensor has been operating on orbit for more than 12 years, and characterizations of its performance have been ongoing over this period. In general, the radiometric performance of the instrument has been remarkably stable: 1) noise performance has degraded by 2% or less overall, with a few detectors displaying step changes in noise of 2% or less; 2) coherent noise frequencies and magnitudes have generally been stable, though the within-scan amplitude variation of the 20 kHz noise in bands 1 and 8 disappeared with the failure of the scan line corrector and a new similar frequency noise (now about 18 kHz) has appeared in two detectors in band 5 and increased in magnitude with time; 3) bias stability has been better than 0.25 DN out of a normal value of 15 DN in high gain; 4) relative gains, the differences in response between the detectors in the band, have generally changed by 0.1% or less over the mission, with the exception of a few detectors with a step response change of 1% or less; and 5) gain stability averaged across all detectors in a band, which is related to the stability of the absolute calibration, has been more stable than the techniques used to measure it. Due to the inability to confirm changes in the gain (beyond a few detectors that have been corrected back to the band average), ETM+ reflective band data continues to be calibrated with the prelaunch measured gains. In the worst case, some bands may have changed as much as 2% in uncompensated absolute calibration over the 12 years.

The AERONET-based Surface Reflectance Validation Network (ASRVN) is an operational processing system developed for validation of satellite derived surface reflectance products at regional and global scales. The ASRVN receives 50 × 50 km 2 subsets of MODIS data centered at AERONET sites along with AERONET aerosol and water vapor data, and performs an atmospheric correction. The ASRVN produces surface bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF), albedo, parameters of the Ross-Thick Li-Sparse (RTLS) BRF model, as well as Hemispherical-Directional Reflectance Factor (HDRF), which is required for comparison with the ground-based measurements. This paper presents a comparison of ASRVN HDRF with the ground-based HDRF measurements collected during 2001–2008 over a bright calibration Railroad Valley, Nevada site as part of the MODIS land validation program. The ground measurements were conducted by the Remote Sensing Group (RSG) at the University of Arizona using an ASD spectrometer. The study reveals a good agreement between ASRVN and RSG HDRF for both MODIS Terra and Aqua with rmse ~ 0.01–0.025 in the 500 m MODIS land bands B1–B7. Obtained rmse is below uncertainties due to the spatial and seasonal variability of the bright calibration 1 km 2 area. While two MODIS instruments have a similar rmse in the visible bands, MODIS Aqua has a better agreement (lower rmse ) with the ground data than MODIS Terra at wavelengths 0.87–2.1 μm. An independent overall good agreement of two MODIS instruments with the ground data indicates that the relative calibration of MODIS Terra and Aqua at medium-to-bright reflectance levels for the stated time period is significantly better than uncertainties of the ASRVN and ground data.

The Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) has been the workhorse of the Landsat system. Launched in 1984, it continues collecting data through the time frame of this paper. Thus, it provides an invaluable link to the past history of the land features of the Earth's surface, and it becomes imperative to provide an accurate radiometric calibration of the reflective bands to the user community. Previous calibration has been based on information obtained from prelaunch, the onboard calibrator, vicarious calibration attempts, and cross-calibration with Landsat-7. Currently, additional data sources are available to improve this calibration. Specifically, improvements in vicarious calibration methods and development of the use of pseudoinvariant sites for trending provide two additional independent calibration sources. The use of these additional estimates has resulted in a consistent calibration approach that ties together all of the available calibration data sources. Results from this analysis indicate a simple exponential, or a constant model may be used for all bands throughout the lifetime of Landsat-5 TM. Where previously time constants for the exponential models were approximately one year, the updated model has significantly longer time constants in bands 1-3. In contrast, bands 4, 5, and 7 are shown to be best modeled by a constant. The models proposed in this paper indicate calibration knowledge of 5% or better early in life, decreasing to nearly 2% later in life. These models have been implemented at the U.S. Geological survey earth resources observation and science (EROS) and are the default calibration used for all Landsat TM data now distributed through EROS.

The reflectance-based vicarious calibration approach has been applied to the Advanced spaceborne Thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER) that is on the Terra platform. The results from three separate groups operating at the same sites at the same time are presented. The three groups show good agreement between each other, with differences between the groups being smaller than 4% in all bands ranging from 0.6 to 2.2 mum and with larger differences being seen at shorter wavelengths and beyond 2.2 mum. comparisons between the groups and to the ASTER sensor are best at 1.66 mum (band 4), with differences between each group being less than 0.5% and all of the groups agreeing with ASTER to better than 5%. Differences in the visible and near infrared (VNIR) are larger, particularly prior to August 2002 when an update to the calibration processing was performed. These differences exceed 10% in some bands. In addition, the vicarious results appear to show a different trend than the onboard calibration for the VNIR indicating a possible problem with the onboard calibrator for bands 1-3.

In order for quantitative applications to make full use of the ever-increasing number of Earth observation satellite systems, data from the various imaging sensors involved must be on a consistent radiometric scale. This paper reports on an investigation of radiometric calibration errors due to differences in spectral response functions between satellite sensors when attempting cross-calibration based on near-simultaneous imaging of common ground targets in analogous spectral bands, a commonly used post-launch calibration methodology. Twenty Earth observation imaging sensors (including coarser and higher spatial resolution sensors) were considered, using the Landsat solar reflective spectral domain as a framework. Scene content was simulated using spectra for four ground target types (Railroad Valley Playa, snow, sand and rangeland), together with various combinations of atmospheric states and illumination geometries. Results were obtained as a function of ground target type, satellite sensor comparison, spectral region, and scene content. Overall, if spectral band difference effects (SBDEs) are not taken into account, the Railroad Valley Playa site is a “good” ground target for cross calibration between most but not all satellite sensors in most but not all spectral regions investigated. “Good” is defined as SBDEs within ± 3%. The other three ground target types considered (snow, sand and rangeland) proved to be more sensitive to uncorrected SBDEs than the RVPN site overall. The spectral characteristics of the scene content (solar irradiance, surface reflectance and atmosphere) are examined in detail to clarify why spectral difference effects arise and why they can be significant when comparing different imaging sensor systems. Atmospheric gas absorption features are identified as being the main source of spectral variability in most spectral regions. The paper concludes with recommendations on spectral data and tools that would facilitate cross-calibration between multiple satellite sensors.

NASA Goddard’s Lidar, Hyperspectral and Thermal Imager (G-LiHT) facilitates simultaneous measurements beneficial to variety of applications. Of the suite of “off-the shelf” instruments of G-LiHT, the Visible Near-Infrared (VNIR) Imaging Spectrometer acquires high resolution spectral measurements (1.5 nm resolution) from 0.4 to 1 μm. Goddard Space Flight Center’s Laser for Absolute Measurement of Response (GLAMR) was used to measure the absolute spectral response (ASR) of the G-LiHT’s imaging spectrometer. Continuously tunable lasers coupled to an integrating sphere allow a radiance-based calibration for the detectors at reflective solar wavelengths. GLAMR measurements, covering a wavelength range from 0.58 to 0.99 μm were acquired between July 30 to August 2, 2013. In order to account for the large field-of-view (50°), G-LiHT was rotated in 2 degree increments so that the same area of the sphere is viewed by all detectors. Using this data along with the coincident Silicon trap radiometer measurements, the ASR was computed. The derived calibration parameters for G-LiHT’s Imaging Spectrometer are to be transferred to near-simultaneous measurements of Landsat sensors. Calibration uncertainty of G-LiHT is 1-3% depending spectral region and transferring this traceability to coincident satellite sensors has 3-5% depending on spectral region.

Calibration and validation play an essential role during the acquisition and processing of satellite data for Earth Observing System satellites in addition to being an integral part of maintaining scientific values of archived satellite data. The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection and Radiometer (ASTER) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) are two of five sensors onboard the Terra platform. ASTER has a swath width of 60 km with 8 spectral bands in the visible and near infrared (VNIR) and thermal infrared (TIR) spectral range with a spatial resolution of 15-m (bands 1-3) and 90-m (bands 10-14), respectively while MODIS has a swath width of 2300 km with 36 spectral bands from visible to infrared spectral range with a spatial resolution of 250 m (bands 1-2), 500 m (bands 3-7), and 1 km (bands 8-36). ASTER is the ‘zoom’ lens and MODIS is the ‘keystone’ instrument for Terra; they provide quantitative measurements of various earth system variables to the scientific and to the broader community. The simultaneous view of the sensors simplifies the intercomparison between them and the current work relies on the use of the Railroad Valley Playa test site to reduce uncertainties caused by spatial heterogeneity and spectral differences in the sensors. The fact that Railroad Valley is a calibration test site for ASTER ensures that ASTER was tasked at a higher rate over this area providing more scenes for an intercomparison. The study compares ASTER L1B data for the three VNIR bands reprocessed with recent calibration updates and MODIS 02 Collection 6 data products for the similar bands. No correction for geometry angle is needed and coincident 3-km by 3-km regions are used to reduce the impact of spatial heterogeneity. A correction for spectral differences between the sensors is applied based on seasonal averages of EO-1 Hyperion spectral range. Results indicate that the calibrated radiance products from the two sensors agree to within the combined absolute uncertainties. There is no statistically significant temporal trend between the two and this should allow the correction between the two to within 0.5% over the 10 years studied here.

The Radiometric Calibration Test Site (RadCaTS) at Railroad Valley Playa, Nevada is being developed by the University of Arizona to enable improved accuracy and consistency for airborne and satellite sensor calibration. Primary instrumentation at the site consists of ground-viewing radiometers, a sun photometer, and a meteorological station. Measurements made by these instruments are used to calculate surface reflectance, atmospheric properties and a prediction for top-of-atmosphere reflectance and radiance. This work will leverage research for RadCaTS, and describe the requirements for an online database, associated data formats and quality control, and processing levels.

Vicarious calibration of future space-based spectral imagers will require ground-based measurements of much higher accuracy and precision than current field instruments support. A promising new technology is the use of a multi-mode fiber as the source of dispersion, replacing a grating. It has recently been demonstrated that the wavelength dependent speckle pattern present at the output of a multimode fiber may be exploited to recover the spectrum of the illuminating source, potentially enabling very compact and stable instruments. In this paper, we review our development of a performance model to assess the prospects for developing a field spectral radiometer based on this concept.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Landsat program has been dedicated to sustaining data continuity over the 20-year period during which Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced TM Plus (ETM+) sensors have been acquiring images of the Earth's surface. In 2000, NASA launched the Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) Advanced Land Imager (ALI) to test new technology that could improve the TM/ETM+ sensor series, yet ensure Landsat data continuity. The study reported here quantified the continuity of satellite-retrieved surface reflectance (/spl rho/) for the three most recent Landsat sensors (Landsat-4 TM, Landsat-5 TM, and Landsat-7 ETM+) and the EO-1 ALI sensor. The study was based on ground-data verification and, in the case of the ETM+ to ALI comparison, coincident image analysis. Reflectance retrieved from all four sensors showed good correlation with ground-measured reflectance, and the sensor-to-sensor data continuity was excellent for all sensors and all bands. A qualitative analysis of the new ALI spectral bands (4p: 0.845-0.890 /spl mu/m and 5p: 1.20-1.30 /spl mu/m) showed that ALI band 5p provided information that was different from that provided by the ETM+/ALI shortwave infrared bands 5 and 7 for agricultural targets and that ALI band 4p has the advantage over the existing ETM+ near-infrared (NIR) band 4 and ALI NIR band 4 of being relatively insensitive to water vapor absorption. The basic conclusion of this study is that the four sensors can provide excellent data continuity for temporal studies of natural resources. Furthermore, the new technologies put forward by the EO-1 ALI sensor have had no apparent effect on data continuity and should be considered for the upcoming Landsat-8 sensor payload.

Vicarious calibration and field validation is a critical aspect of NASA's Earth Observing System program. As part of calibration and validation research related to this project, the Remote Sensing Group (RSG) of the Optical Science Center at the University of Arizona has developed an imaging radiometer for ground-based measurements of directional reflectance. The system relies on a commercially available 1024×1024 pixel, silicon CCD array. Angular measurements are accomplished using a fish-eye lens that has a full 180° field of view with each pixel on the CCD array having a nominal 0.2° field of view. Spectral selection is through four interference filters centered at 470, 575, 660, and 835 nm. The system is designed such that the entire 180° field is collected at one time with a complete multispectral data set collected in under 2 min. The results of laboratory experiments have been used to determine the gain and offset of each detector element as well as the effects of the lens on the system response. Measurements of a stable source using multiple integration times and at multiple distances for a set integration time indicate the system is linear to better than 0.5% over the upper 88% of the dynamic range of the system. The point spread function (PSF) of the lens system was measured for several field angles, and the signal level was found to fall to less than 1% of the peak signal within 1.5° for the on-axis case. The effect of this PSF on the retrieval of modeled BRDFs is shown to be less than 0.2% out to view angles of 70°. The degree of polarization of the system is shown to be negligible for on-axis imaging but to have up to a 20% effect at a field angle of 70°. The effect of the system polarization on the retrieval of modeled BRDFs is shown to be up to 3% for field angles of 70° off nadir and with a solar zenith angle of 70°. Field measurements are made by mounting the camera to a boom mounted to a large tripod that is aligned toward south. This tripod obstructs sampling of the surface reflectance past 25° off nadir northward. The system is typically operated at a height of 1.5 m to view over a large sampling of surface features, such as cracks. To evaluate the surface BRDF, measurements are collected throughout the morning as a function of Sun angle. A single measurement consists of all four bands and a dark-current measurement. Data sets have been collected over several vicarious calibration sites and calibration tarpaulins. Comparisons with measurements made by a simple goniometer-based system indicate that the camera system is as accurate as the goniometer. Scattering phase function values derived from the camera system are fit to a modified Pinty-Verstraete equation. This function is shown to fit the data to better than 0.3% for data collected during an example RSG vicarious calibration experiment. Bidirectional reflectance data derived from the camera system also compare well to those predicted from the Walthall model. These BRDF models are critical for determining the applicability of measurements taken over small areas to represent the BRDF properties of an entire site, which in some cases is of the order of several kilometers in size.

A joint campaign was held at Lunar Lake Playa, Nevada (USA) in June 1996 to evaluate the accuracy of reflectance-based, vicarious calibrations of Earth Observing Systems (EOS). Four groups participated in the campaign and made independent measurements of surface reflectance and atmospheric transmittance on five different days. Each group predicted top-of-the-atmosphere radiance for several bands in the 400 nm to 2500 nm spectral range. Analysis of the data showed differences of the order of 5% to 10% throughout the spectral region under study. Further study revealed that the major sources of discrepancy are differences in procedures and assumptions in finding the reflectance of field references used to determine the surface reflectance of the test site. Differences caused by varying radiative transfer codes and aerosol assumptions were found to be a relatively small error source, owing to the high reflectance and low turbidity of the test site. Differences in the solar irradiance values used by separate groups were found to be significant, but can be overcome by agreeing on a standard solar irradiance data set. The results from this campaign were used to plan a follow-up campaign in June 1997 that included developing a set of laboratory measurements to characterize the field radiometers which measure surface reflectance, and obtaining a consistent set of reference-panel reflectance factors. The expectation is that disagreement in absolute radiances at the top of the atmosphere generated by these field methods will be reduced to less than 3% if further cooperative work between groups is carried out to develop approaches which will account better for reference panel calibration, the consistent use of atmospheric characterization and radiative transfer codes.

Describes the preflight and inflight calibration approaches used for the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). The system is a multispectral, high-spatial resolution sensor on the Earth Observing System's EOS-AM1 platform. Preflight calibration of ASTER uses well-characterized sources to provide calibration and preflight round-robin exercises to understand biases between the calibration sources of ASTER and other EOS sensors. These round-robins rely on well-characterized, ultra-stable radiometers. An experiment field in Yokohama, Japan, showed that the output from the source used for the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) subsystem of ASTER may be underestimated by 1.5%, but this is still within the 4% specification for the absolute, radiometric calibration of these bands. Inflight calibration will rely on vicarious techniques and onboard blackbodies and lamps. Vicarious techniques include ground-reference methods using desert and water sites. A recent joint field campaign gives confidence that these methods currently provide absolute calibration to better than 5%, and indications are that uncertainties less than the required 4% should be achievable at launch. The EOS-AM1 platform will also provide a spacecraft maneuver that will allow ASTER to see the Moon, allowing further characterization of the sensor. A method for combining the results of these independent calibration results is presented. The paper also describes the plans for validating the Level 2 data products from ASTER. These plans rely heavily upon field campaigns using methods similar to those used for the ground-reference, vicarious calibration methods.

The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission key goals include enabling observation of high accuracy long-term climate change trends, use of these observations to test and improve climate forecasts, and calibration of operational and research sensors. The spaceborne instrument suites include a reflected solar spectroradiometer, emitted infrared spectroradiometer, and radio occultation receivers. The requirement for the RS instrument is that derived reflectance must be traceable to Sl standards with an absolute uncertainty of

Pre-flight radiometric calibration is critical to ensure that sensors can demonstrate that they meet their design performance specification. However, following launch it is critical that this performance is verified and in particular that the radiometric accuracy is validated or if necessary corrected. As Earth observation data becomes widely used it becomes increasingly important that data from each satellite sensor can be relied upon in the short and longer term and any potential biases between sensors can be removed. This post-launch calibration/validation is thus recognized as a key activity by all satellite operators. There are various methods available for carrying out this post-launch vicarious calibration but one of the most common and generic approaches is to use a dedicated and characterised “test site”. In such a method, ground based measurements of surface reflectance/radiance using similar solar illumination angles and sensor view angles (or at least corrected for these) is propagated to the top of the atmosphere (TOA) using a radiative transfer code. For the highest accuracy, surface measurements should be made within a few minutes of the satellite overpass and the characteristics of the atmosphere at that time also measured, particularly its optical depth.

The Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM) continues Landsat data into a fourth decade with a two-sensor platform that includes the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). TIRS will operate in pushbroom mode with two spectral bands (10.8 and 12 micrometer) and a required spatial resolution of 120-m and 185-km swath. The radiometric assessment of TIRS relies on NIST-traceability of the radiometric calibration, knowledge of out-of-band spectral response, and characterizing and minimizing stray light. Calibration testing will take place at NASA GSFC using a vacuum-compatible system that is capable of filling the entrance aperture of TIRS while permitting evaluation of the entire field of view. Spectral response of the sensor will be determined using a monochromator source external to the test chamber. The error budget for the calibration system shows that the required 2% radiometric accuracy for scene temperatures between 260 and 330 K is well within the capabilities of the system.

Assessment of the effect of multiangular polarized incident light on the bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) of vegetation and soil samples is presented in this paper. The samples were evaluated with a reference to 99% white Spectralon calibration standard in the UV-VIS-NIR spectral range. The BRF of the samples was found to be strongly influenced by the polarization of the incident light at different multiangular geometries.

The Landsat Data Continuity Mission consists of a two-sensor platform with the Operational Land Imager and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). Much of the success of the Landsat program is the emphasis placed on knowledge of the calibration of the sensors relying on a combination of laboratory, onboard, and vicarious calibration methods. Rigorous attention to NIST-traceability of the radiometric calibration, knowledge of out-of-band spectral response, and characterizing and minimizing stray light should provide sensors that meet the quality of Landsat heritage. Described here are the methods and facilities planned for the calibration of TIRS which is a pushbroom sensor with two spectral bands (10.8 and 12 micrometer) and the spatial resolution 100 m with 185-km swath width. Testing takes place in a vacuum test chamber at NASA GSFC using a recently-developed calibration system based on a 16-aperture black body source to simulate spatial and radiometric sources. A two-axis steering mirror moves the source across the TIRS field while filling the aperture. A flood source fills the full field without requiring movement of beam providing a means to evaluate detector-to-detector response effects. Spectral response of the sensor will be determined using a monochromator source coupled to the calibration system. Knowledge of the source output will be through NIST-traceable thermometers integrated to the blackbody. The description of the calibration system, calibration methodology, and the error budget for the calibration system shows that the required 2% radiometric accuracy for scene temperatures between 260 and 330 K is well within the capabilities of the system.

A laboratory-based Bidirectional Reflectance Factor (BRF) polarization study of vegetation is presented in this paper. The BRF was measured using a short-arc Xenon lamp/monochromator assembly producing a tunable light source with a well-defined spectral bandpass at the following visible and near-infrared wavelengths: 340nm, 470 nm, and 870 nm. All vegetation samples were measured using P and S linearly polarized incident light over a range of incident and scatter angles. By comparing these results, we quantitatively examined how the BRF of the samples depends on the polarization of the incident light. The differences are significant, depend strongly on the incident and scatter angles, and can be as high as 135% at 67 deg incident and 470nm.

The Remote Sensing Group (RSG) at the University of Arizona has a long history of using ground-based test sites for the calibration of airborne and satellite based sensors. Often, ground-truth measurements at these test sites are not always successful due to weather and funding availability. Therefore, RSG has also automated ground instrument approaches and cross-calibration methods to verify the radiometric calibration of a sensor. The goal in the cross-calibration method is to transfer the calibration of a well-known sensor to that of a different sensor, This work studies the feasibility of determining the radiometric calibration of a hyperspectral imager using multispectral a imagery. The work relies on the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (M0DIS) as a reference for the hyperspectral sensor Hyperion. Test sites used for comparisons are Railroad Valley in Nevada and a portion of the Libyan Desert in North Africa. Hyperion bands are compared to MODIS by band averaging Hyperion's high spectral resolution data with the relative spectral response of M0DlS. The results compare cross-calibration scenarios that differ in image acquisition coincidence, test site used for the calibration, and reference sensor. Cross-calibration results are presented that show agreement between the use of coincident and non-coincident image pairs within 2% in most brands as well as similar agreement between results that employ the different MODIS sensors as a reference.

Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corporation in Boulder, Colorado, has developed a heliostat facility that will be used to determine the preflight radiometric calibration of Earth-observing sensors that operate in the solar-reflective regime. While automatically tracking the Sun, the heliostat directs the solar beam inside a thermal vacuum chamber, where the sensor under test resides. The main advantage to using the Sun as the illumination source for preflight radiometric calibration is because it will also be the source of illumination when the sensor is in flight. This minimizes errors in the pre- and post-launch calibration due to spectral mismatches. It also allows the instrument under test to operate at irradiance values similar to those on orbit. The Remote Sensing Group at the University of Arizona measured the transmittance of the heliostat facility using three methods, the first of which is a relative measurement made using a hyperspectral portable spectroradiometer and well-calibrated reference panel. The second method is also a relative measurement, and uses a 12-channel automated solar radiometer. The final method is an absolute measurement using a hyperspectral spectroradiometer and reference panel combination, where the spectroradiometer is calibrated on site using a solar-radiation-based calibration.

The Remote Sensing Group (RSG) at the University of Arizona Optical Sciences Center has been performing high accuracy laboratory calibration for over 20 years. An integral part of this laboratory calibration is the implementation of very accurate and repeatable transfer radiometers. This work highlights the design and characterization of one such radiometer. This particular radiometer is essentially an updated version of a previous radiometer designed and characterized by the RSG (Spyak 2000) with particular attention being paid to increased portability, ease of use and autonomous operation. This work also covers the characterization of this radiometer, including radiometric calibration, field of view, and general performance.