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The involvement of youth in the sport of weightlifting and the use of weightlifting methods as part of training for youth sport performance appears to be increasing. Weightlifting for children and adolescents has been criticized in some circles and is a controversial aspect of resistance training for young people. Although injuries can occur during weightlifting and related activities, the incidence and rate of injury appear to be relatively low and severe injury is uncommon. A number of performance, physical, and physiological variables, such as body composition, strength, and power, are improved by weightlifting training in children, adolescents, and young athletes. Manipulating program variables, when appropriate, can have a substantial and profound influence on the psychological, physiological, physical, and performance aspects of weightlifters. An understanding of the sport, scientific training principles, and musculoskeletal growth development is necessary to properly construct a reasonable and appropriate training program. A scientific background aids in providing an evidenced basis and sound rationale in selecting appropriate methods and directing adaptations toward more specific goals and enables the coach to make choices about training and competition that might not otherwise be possible. If weightlifting training and competition are age group appropriate and are properly supervised, the sport can be substantially safe and efficacious.

Stone, MH, Hornsby, WG, Haff, GG, Fry, AC, Suarez, DG, Liu, J, Gonzalez-Rave, JM, and Pierce, KC. Periodization and block periodization in sports: emphasis on strength-power training-a provocative and challenging narrative. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2351-2371, 2021-Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional over-reaching, overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection, volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block. Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be "tailored" through creative programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.

Analysis of elite performances is important to elucidate the characteristics of effective weightlifting technique contributing to the highest level of achievement. The general technique of the weightlifting movements is well established. However, it is also apparent that weightlifting technique can differ based on athlete characteristics. Thus, existing technical models may not accurately reflect current technique of top performers or be applied generically to athletes of different skill, size, sex, or ability. Therefore, the purpose of this descriptive study was to update the scientific knowledge of snatch technique of top international weightlifters. This study used video analysis to determine barbell trajectory and kinematics of 319 successful snatch attempts from two major international competitions. Relative frequencies of barbell trajectory types differed based on competition, sex, category, and ranking. No statistical differences were observed among the top-three performers for either sex for most kinematic variables, and there were no overall discernible patterns of effect size differences for individual or clusters of kinematic variables. The results of this study indicate that weightlifting success can be achieved with a variety of technique profiles.

Recent reviews have attempted to refute the efficacy of applying Selye's general adaptation syndrome (GAS) as a conceptual framework for the training process. Furthermore, the criticisms involved are regularly used as the basis for arguments against the periodization of training. However, these perspectives fail to consider the entirety of Selye's work, the evolution of his model, and the broad applications he proposed. While it is reasonable to critically evaluate any paradigm, critics of the GAS have yet to dismantle the link between stress and adaptation. Disturbance to the state of an organism is the driving force for biological adaptation, which is the central thesis of the GAS model and the primary basis for its application to the athlete's training process. Despite its imprecisions, the GAS has proven to be an instructive framework for understanding the mechanistic process of providing a training stimulus to induce specific adaptations that result in functional enhancements. Pioneers of modern periodization have used the GAS as a framework for the management of stress and fatigue to direct adaptation during sports training. Updates to the periodization concept have retained its founding constructs while explicitly calling for scientifically based, evidence-driven practice suited to the individual. Thus, the purpose of this review is to provide greater clarity on how the GAS serves as an appropriate mechanistic model to conceptualize the periodization of training.

The present article addresses issues within U.S. collegiate sport as it pertains to the physical preparation and health and well-being of intercollegiate athletes. Specifically, the sport coach is often perceived as “all knowing” about every facet of their sport when, in fact, they typically are not formally educated or well-trained in current methods of enhancing sport performance. Often strength and conditioning coaches, who may also be poorly trained, are tied directly (financially and administratively) to the sport coach—a situation which has led to a subservient role heavily influenced by the wishes of the sport coach. This has unfortunately resulted in the multidimensional well-being of the athlete clearly not being a primary objective in many programs.

Buckner et al. [1] have submitted a letter in response to our recent review [2] on the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) and its application to training periodization. As Buckner et al. state, this topic deserves fair and thorough discussion from multiple perspectives, and we thank them for the opportunity to continue such dialogue. Their letter restates many of the points in their original reviews [3, 4], which we addressed in our manuscript. Nevertheless, we will address the main points of their letter to provide further clarity on how the GAS does in fact serve as an appropriate mechanistic model to conceptualize training periodization.

The current manuscript has been adapted from the official position statement of the UK Strength and Conditioning Association on youth resistance training. It has subsequently been reviewed and endorsed by leading professional organisations within the fields of sports medicine, exercise science and paediatrics. The authorship team for this article was selected from the fields of paediatric exercise science, paediatric medicine, physical education, strength and conditioning and sports medicine.

THE INTRODUCTION OF NOVEL TRAINING STIMULI PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN INDUCING SPECIFIC TRAINING ADAPTATIONS. ONE METHOD THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO INTRODUCE A NOVEL STIMULUS TO THE TRAINING PROGRAM WHILE MAXIMIZING THE VELOCITY AND POWER OUTPUT OF THE TRAINING EXERCISE IS THE INCLUSION OF THE CLUSTER SET CONFIGURATION. THE CURRENT REVIEW PRESENTS THE THEORETICAL AND RESEARCH FOUNDATION FOR THE USE OF THE CLUSTER SET IN PERIODIZED TRAINING PROGRAMS AND OFFERS EXAMPLES OF PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS THAT CAN BE USED IN THE PREPARATION OF ATHLETES IN A VARIETY OF SPORTS.

This is the second part of a 2-part discussion (the first,"Weightlifting: A Brief Overview," appeared 28(1):50-66, 2006) on weightlifting and will describe the best methods of designing a weightlifting program

Prestigious professional organisations have questioned the efficacy of resistive training by children or have often neglected to address weightlifting in their position papers on resistive training for children. The purpose of this paper was to address the deficit in data regarding the efficacy of training children for weightlifting and to report data regarding to safety in this population. Eleven subjects (3 female, 8 male) who had trained at the USA Weightlifting Development Centre in Shreveport Louisiana for a minimum of 22 months (mean = 28.8; SD +/- 4.4) served as subjects for this study. Means for the pool of subjects subjected to t-test to compare data obtained at each subject's initial competition with that obtained at the individual's most recent competition revealed significant positive changes in body weight, snatch weight, clean and jerk weight, and total weight lifted. The latter three were significant both in absolute weight and in weight lifted per kg of body weight. Total weight lifted at competitions plotted separately for boys and for girls across time indicated an apparently steeper slope of improvement for boys. The latter were not tested for significance because of the small sample sizes. The lack of injury in training and in 534 competitive lifts was discussed. None required medical attention or loss of training time. It was concluded that there can be no doubt regarding the efficacy of weightlifting as carried out at the USA Weightlifting Development Centre. The importance of proper application of scientific theory of conditioning in a conservative manner for this population was emphasised.

Bar trajectory during weightlifting movements is related to the position of the body during the lift and the displacement of the feet during the drop-under phase. The purpose of this study was to examine anterior-posterior foot displacement and its relationship with performance in the snatch of collegiate weightlifters. Snatch attempts of men weightlifters from the 1998 U.S.A. Weightlifting Collegiate National Championships were analyzed for horizontal displacement of the feet by video analysis. Lifts were analyzed under 2 conditions: all lifts combined and the heaviest successful attempt for each lifter. Lifts (n = 74) were placed into 4 groups: forward displacement (FD, >2.5 cm); no displacement (ND, +/-2.5 cm); rearward displacement (RD, >2.5 cm); and those that showed asymmetric (AS, >7 cm difference in right and left foot) displacement of the feet. Chi-square revealed no significant difference in success rate between groups for all attempts. No statistically significant differences were noted between groups in body mass to bar mass ratio or Sinclair formula for heaviest successful attempts. Results indicate that foot displacement did not significantly affect snatch success or lifting ability in collegiate national level lifters.

The participation of children and early and late adolescents in resistance training activities, including training for sport, appears to continually be on the rise. The involvement of youth in the sport of weightlifting and the use of weightlifting methods as part of training for sport performance also appears to be growing. The increased acceptance of these activities is evidenced by the number of both lay and scientific articles, specialized magazines and publications devoted to the different types of resistance training. It is also indicated by simple observation of fitness centres and sports training facilities. The use of resistance training appears to be growing in popularity despite poorly supported position statements, anecdotal reports and speculation concerning the potential for injury. Children and adolescents participating in resistance training programs can make noticeable increases in strength and power as well as physiological parameters associated with both health and sport performance. Although the number of children and adolescents (aged 8 – 18 years) involved in some form of resistance training is increasing and evidenced-based reviews that support these activities have been published, controversy still exists. There are still those who insist that training with free weights, particularly the sport of weightlifting, should not take place until a person is fully developed, even though there is not much objective evidence to support such a position. More recently published scientific data support the notion that properly supervised resistance training programs can improve sport performance, reduce injury potential and enhance healthy facets of children and early and late adolescents.

The purpose of this investigation was to study the efficacy of two dietary supplements on measures of body mass, body composition, and performance in 42 American football players. Group CM (n = 9) received creatine monohy-drate, Group P (n = 11) received calcium pyruvate. Group COM (n = 11) received a combination of calcium pyruvate (60%) and creatine (40%), and Group PL received a placebo. Tests were performed before (Tl) and after (T2) the 5-week supplementation period, during which the subjects continued their normal training schedules. Compared to P and PL. CM and COM showed significantly greater increases for body mass, lean body mass, 1 repetition maximum (RM) bench press, combined 1 RM squat and bench press, and static vertical jump (SVJ) power output. Peak rate of force development for SVJ was significantly greater for CM compared to P and PL. Creatine and the combination supplement enhanced training adaptations associated with body mass/composition, maximum strength, and SVJ; however, pyruvate supplementation alone was ineffective.

This study investigated the response of lactate [La], heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) to acute resistance exercise following a high volume weight training program. Twenty-three untrained male subjects were divided into experimental (GE, n = 15) and control groups (C, n = 8). A pretest (Pre) was performed consisting of full squats for 1 set of 10 repetitions (reps) at 45% of a 1-rep maximum (1-RM), 1 set of 10 reps at 55% 1-RM, and 5 sets of 10 reps at 62.5% 1-RM. Following 8 weeks of training by GE, all subjects were retested (Post) using the original Pre testing Protocol. Results showed that peak [La] decreased from 11.9 ± 4.2 mmol · L−1 to 5.1 ± 2.6 mmol · L−1 (p

Purpose:To assess the effects of manipulating the loading of successive sets of midthigh clean pulls on the potentiation capabilities of 7 international-level US weightlifters (4 men, 3 women).Methods:Isometric and dynamic peak-force characteristics were measured with a force plate at 500 Hz. Velocity during dynamic pulls was measured using 2 potentiometers that were suspended from the top of the right and left sides of the testing system and attached to both ends of the bar. Five dynamic-performance trials were used (in the following order) as the potentiation protocol: women at 60, 80, 100, 120, and 80 kg and men at 60, 140, 180, 220, and 140 kg. Trials 2 vs 5 were specifically analyzed to assess potentiation capabilities. Isometric midthigh pulls were assessed for peak force and rate of force development. Dynamic lifts were assessed for peak force (PF), peak velocity (PV), peak power (PP), and rate of force development (RFD).Results:Although all values (PF, PV, PP, and RFD) were higher postpotentiation, the only statistically higher value was found for PV (ICCα = .95, P = .011, η2 = .69).Conclusions:Results suggest that manipulating set-loading configuration can result in a potentiation effect when heavily loaded sets are followed by a lighter set. This potentiation effect was primarily characterized by an increase in the PV in elite weightlifters.

The primary objective was to assess the relationship of maximum strength to weightlifting ability using established scaling methods. The secondary objective was to compare men and women weightlifters on strength and weightlifting ability.Two correlational observations were carried out using Pearson's r. In the first observation (N = 65) the relationship of dynamic maximum strength (one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat) was compared with weightlifting ability; in the second observation (N = 16), isometric maximum strength (midthigh pull) was studied. Scaling methods for equating maximum strength and weightlifting results were used (load x (Ht), load x kg, load x lbm(-1), allometric, and Sinclair formula) to assess the association between measures of maximum strength and weightlifting performance.Using scaled values; correlations between maximum strength and weightlifting results were generally strong in both observations (e.g., using allometric scaling for the 1RM squat vs the 1RM snatch: r = 0.84, N = 65). Men were stronger than women (e.g., 1RM squat, N = 65: men = 188.1 +/- 48.6 kg; women = 126.7 +/- 28.3 kg); differences generally held when scaling was applied (e.g., 1RM squat scaled with the Sinclair formula: men = 224.7 +/- 36.5 kg; women = 144.2 +/- 25.4 kg).When collectively considering scaling methods, maximum strength is strongly related to weightlifting performance independent of body mass and height differences. Furthermore, men are stronger than women even when body mass and height are obviated by scaling methods.

Bar trajectory during weightlifting movements is related to the position of the body during the lift and the displacement of the feet during the drop-under phase. The purpose of this study was to examine anterior-posterior foot displacement and its relationship with performance in the snatch of collegiate weightlifters. Snatch attempts of men weightlifters from the 1998 U.S.A. Weightlifting Collegiate National Championships were analyzed for horizontal displacement of the feet by video analysis. Lifts were analyzed under 2 conditions: all lifts combined and the heaviest successful attempt for each lifter. Lifts (n = 74) were placed into 4 groups: forward displacement (FD,2.5 cm); no displacement (ND, +/-2.5 cm); rearward displacement (RD,2.5 cm); and those that showed asymmetric (AS,7 cm difference in right and left foot) displacement of the feet. Chi-square revealed no significant difference in success rate between groups for all attempts. No statistically significant differences were noted between groups in body mass to bar mass ratio or Sinclair formula for heaviest successful attempts. Results indicate that foot displacement did not significantly affect snatch success or lifting ability in collegiate national level lifters.

Endurance can be defined as the ability to maintain or to repeat a given force or power output. The sport performance-endurance relationship is a multi-factorial concept. However, evidence indicates that maximum strength is a major component. Conceptually, endurance is a continuum. The literature indicates that (a) maximum strength is moderately to strongly related to endurance capabilities and associated factors, a relationship that is likely stronger for high intensity exercise endurance (HIEE) activities than for low intensity exercise endurance (LIEE); (b) strength training can increase both HIEE and LIEE, the effect being greater for HIEE; (c) the volume of strength training plays a role in endurance adaptation; and (d) mechanical specificity and training program variables also play a role in the degree of adaptation.

This is the first part of a 2-part discussion on weightlifting and will describe the historical and scientific background of the sport

The purpose of this study was to assess the usefulness of the vertical jump and estimated vertical-jump power as a field test for weightlifting. Estimated PP output from the vertical jump was correlated with lifting ability among 64 USA national-level weightlifters (junior and senior men and women). Vertical jump was measured using the Kinematic Measurement System, consisting of a switch mat interfaced with a laptop computer. Vertical jumps were measured using a hands-on-hips method. A counter-movement vertical jump (CMJ) and a static vertical jump (SJ, 90 degrees knee angle) were measured. Two trials were given for each condition. Test-retest reliability for jump height was intra-class correlation (ICC) = 0.98 (CMJ) and ICC = 0.96 (SJ). Athletes warmed up on their own for 2-3 minutes, followed by 2 practice jumps at each condition. Peak power (PP) was estimated using the equations developed by Sayers et al. (24). The athletes' current lifting capabilities were assessed by a questionnaire, and USA national coaches checked the listed values. Differences between groups (i.e., men versus women, juniors versus resident lifters) were determined using t-tests (p < or = 0.05). Correlations were determined using Pearson's r. Results indicate that vertical jumping PP is strongly associated with weightlifting ability. Thus, these results indicate that PP derived from the vertical jump (CMJ or SJ) can be a valuable tool in assessing weightlifting performance.

The effects of 3 types of set configurations (cluster, traditional, and undulating) on barbell kinematics were investigated in the present study. Thirteen men (track and field = 8; Olympic weightlifters = 5) (mean +/- SEM age, 23.4 +/- 1.1 years; height, 181.3 +/- 2.1 cm; body mass, 89.8 +/- 4.2 kg) performed 1 set of 5 repetitions in a cluster, traditional, and undulating fashion at 90 and 120% of their 1 repetition maximum (1RM) power clean (119.0 +/- 4.3 kg). All data were collected at 50 Hz and analyzed with a V-Scope Weightlifting Analysis System. Peak velocity (PV) and peak displacement (PD) were analyzed for each repetition and averaged for each set type. Results indicated that a significantly (p < 0.016) higher PV occurred during the cluster set when compared with the traditional sets at both intensities. PD was significantly higher than traditional sets at the 120% intensity. The present study suggests set configuration can affect PV and PD during clean pulls.

This study compares the effects of 3 weight-training programs on the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat (SQ). Subjects were 21 college-age men. The criteria for subject inclusion was initial 1RM > 110 kg and > 1.3 × body mass and the ability to complete > 80% of the programmed repetitions. The