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Background: The role of positive maternal mental health during pregnancy in child mental health remains largely unknown. We investigated whether positive maternal mental health during pregnancy is associated with lower hazards of mental and behavioral disorders in children and mitigates the adverse effects of negative maternal mental health. Methods: Among 3,378 mother–child dyads of the Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction study, mothers reported their positive mental health biweekly throughout pregnancy with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory Curiosity scale, and a visual analogue scale for social support, and negative mental health with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. We extracted data on their mental and behavioral disorder diagnoses from a nationwide medical register. This register provided data on their children’s mental and behavioral disorder diagnoses as well, from birth until 8.4−12.8 (Median = 10.2, Interquartile Range 9.7−10.8) years of age. Results: A positive maternal mental health composite score during pregnancy was associated with a lower hazard of any mental and behavioral disorder among all children [Hazard Ratio (HR) = 0.79, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.71 − 0.87] and among children of mothers experiencing clinically relevant depressive symptoms during pregnancy [HR = 0.80, 95%CI 0.64 − 1.00] and/or mental and behavioral disorders before or during pregnancy [HR = 0.69, 95%CI 0.55−0.86]. These associations were independent of covariates. Conclusions: Children whose mothers had more positive mental health during pregnancy were less likely to develop mental and behavioral disorders. Protective effects were seen also among children of mothers facing mental health adversities before or during pregnancy.

Exposure to maltreatment in childhood is associated with lifelong risk of mental and behavioral disorders. Whether the effects extend to the next generation remains unclear. We examined whether maternal exposure to childhood abuse and neglect in her own childhood were associated with mental and behavioral disorders and psychiatric symptoms in her children, and whether maternal lifetime mental and behavioral disorders or lower education level mediated or added to the effects. Mothers (n = 2252) of the Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction cohort study completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and reported on their education and their 7.0–12.1-year-old children’s psychiatric symptoms using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. We identified lifetime mental and behavioral disorder diagnoses for the mothers and diagnoses for their children from birth (2006–2010) until 8.4–12.8 years (12/31/2018) from Care Register for Health Care. We found that maternal exposure to childhood abuse, but not neglect, was associated with higher hazards of mental and behavioral disorders (hazard ratio 1.20, 95% confidence interval 1.06–1.37) in children. These associations were partially mediated by maternal mental and behavioral disorders and education (proportion of effect size mediated: 23.8% and 15.1%, respectively), which together with maternal exposure to childhood abuse added to the hazard of mental and behavioral disorders in children. Similar associations were found for maternal exposure to childhood abuse and neglect with psychiatric symptoms in children. To conclude, maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment is associated with mental and behavioral disorders and psychiatric symptoms in children. Our findings call for interventions to prevent intergenerational transmission.

Importance: Vitamin D is associated with neurodevelopment, but causality, critical windows, and potentials for modification remain unknown. Objective: To determine the impact of high-dose (1200 IU) vs standard-dose (400 IU) vitamin D₃ supplementation during the first 2 years on psychiatric symptoms at ages 6 to 8 years and whether the impact is different in children with lower vs higher maternal vitamin D₃ levels; lower vs higher levels were defined as 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) less than 30 ng/mL vs 30 ng/mL or greater. Design, Setting, and Participants: This study was a long-term follow-up of the double-blind randomized clinical trial (RCT) Vitamin D Intervention in Infants (VIDI) conducted at a single center in Helsinki, Finland, at 60 degrees north latitude. Recruitment for VIDI took place in 2013 to 2014. Follow-up data for secondary data analysis were collected 2020 to 2021. VIDI originally included 987 term-born infants; 546 of these individuals participated in the follow-up at ages 6 to 8 years, among whom 346 individuals had data on parent-reported psychiatric symptoms. Data were analyzed from June 2022 to March 2023. Interventions: There were 169 infants randomized to receive 400-IU and 177 infants randomized to receive 1200-IU oral vitamin D3 supplementation daily from ages 2 weeks to 24 months. Main Outcomes and Measures Primary outcomes were internalizing, externalizing, and total problems scores, with clinically significant problems defined as T scores of 64 or greater in the Child Behavior Checklist questionnaire. Results: Among 346 participants (164 females [47.4%]; mean [SD] age, 7.1 [0.4] years), the vitamin D₃ dose was 400 IU for 169 participants and 1200 IU for 177 participants. Clinically significant internalizing problems occurred in 10 participants in the 1200-IU group (5.6% prevalence) compared with 20 participants (11.8%) in the 400-IU group (odds ratio, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.17-0.94; P = .04) after adjustment for sex, birth season, ma

Several studies have shown that children from pregnancies with estimated first-trimester risk based on fetal nuchal translucency thickness and abnormal maternal serum pregnancy protein and hormone levels maintain a higher likelihood of adverse outcomes, even if initial testing for known genetic conditions is negative. We used the Finnish InTraUterine cohort (ITU), which is a comprehensively characterized perinatal cohort consisting of 943 mothers and their babies followed throughout pregnancy and 18 months postnatally, including mothers shortlisted for prenatal genetic testing but cleared for major aneuploidies (cases: n = 544, 57.7%) and control pregnancies (n = 399, 42.3%). Using genome-wide genotyping and RNA sequencing of first-trimester and term placental tissue, combined with medical information from registry data and maternal self-report data, we investigated potential negative medical outcomes and genetic susceptibility to disease and their correlates in placenta gene expression. Case mothers did not present with higher levels of depression, perceived stress, or anxiety during pregnancy. Case children were significantly diagnosed more often with congenital malformations of the circulatory system (4.12 (95% CI [1.22–13.93]) higher hazard) and presented with significantly more copy number duplications as compared to controls (burden analysis, based on all copy number variants (CNVs) with at most 10% frequency, 823 called duplications in 297 cases versus 626 called duplications in 277 controls, p = 0.01). Fifteen genes showed differential gene expression (FDR < 0.1) in association with congenital malformations in first-trimester but not term placenta. These were significantly enriched for genes associated with placental dysfunction. In spite of normal routine follow-up prenatal testing results in early pregnancy, case children presented with an increased likelihood of negative outcomes, which should prompt vigilance in follow-up during pregnancy and

Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity and/or higher body mass index (BMI) have been associated with neurodevelopmental and mental health adversities in children. While maternal metabolomic perturbations during pregnancy may underpin these associations, the existing evidence is limited to studying individual metabolites, not capturing metabolic variation specific to maternal BMI, and not accounting for the correlated nature of the metabolomic measures. By using multivariate supervised analytical methods, we first identified maternal early-pregnancy BMI-associated metabolomic component during pregnancy. We then examined whether this component was associated with mental and behavioral disorders in children, improved the prediction of the child outcomes over maternal BMI, and what proportion of the effect of maternal BMI on the child outcomes this component mediated. Early-pregnancy BMI of 425 mothers participating in the PREDO study was extracted from the national Medical Birth Register. During pregnancy, mothers donated up to three blood samples, from which a targeted panel of 68 metabolites were measured. Mental and behavioral disorders in children followed-up from birth until 8.4–12.8 years came from the Care Register for Health Care. Of the 68 metabolites averaged across the three sampling points, 43 associated significantly with maternal early-pregnancy BMI yielding a maternal early-pregnancy BMI-associated metabolomic component (total variance explained, 55.4%; predictive ability, 52.0%). This metabolomic component was significantly associated with higher hazard of any mental and behavioral disorder [HR 1.45, 95%CI(1.15, 1.84)] and relative risk of having a higher number of co-morbid disorders [RR 1.43, 95%CI(1.12, 1.69)] in children. It improved the goodness-of-model-fit over maternal BMI by 37.7–65.6%, and hence the predictive significance of the model, and mediated 60.8–75.8% of the effect of maternal BMI on the child outcomes. Maternal BMI-related metabolom

Purpose: The InTraUterine sampling in early pregnancy (ITU) is a prospective pregnancy cohort study. The overarching aim of ITU is to unravel genomic, epigenomic, transcriptomic, endocrine, inflammatory and metabolic maternal-placental-fetal mechanisms involved in the programming of health and disease after exposure to prenatal environmental adversity, such as maternal malnutrition, cardiometabolic disorders, infections, medical interventions, mental disorders and psychosocial stress. This paper describes the study protocol, design and baseline characteristics of the cohort. Participants: We included 944 pregnant Finnish women, their partners and children born alive between April 2012 and December 2017. The women were recruited through the national, voluntary trisomy 21 screening between 9+0 and 21+6 gestational weeks. Of the participating women, 543 were screen positive and underwent fetal chromosomal testing. Test result of these women suggested no fetal chromosomal abnormality. Further, we recruited 401 women who were screen negative and who did not undergo fetal chromosomal testing. Findings to date: We have collected chorionic villi and amniotic fluid from the screen-positive women; blood, urine, buccal swabs and diurnal salivary samples from all women; blood and buccal swabs from all partners; and placenta, cord blood and buccal swabs from all newborns for analyses of the genome, epigenome, transcriptome, and endocrine, inflammatory and metabolic markers. These data are coupled with comprehensive phenotypes, including questions on demographic characteristics, health and well-being of the women and their partners during pregnancy and of the women and their children at the child’s age of 1.7 and 3 years. Data also come from patient records and nationwide registers covering health, lifestyle and medication data. Future plans: Multiple layers of ITU data allow integrative data analyses, which translate to biomarker identification and allow risk stratifica

Preterm birth has been linked with postpartum depressive (PPD) disorders and high symptom levels, but evidence remains conflicting and limited in quality. It remains unclear whether PPD symptoms of mothers with preterm babies were already elevated before childbirth, and whether PPD symptoms mediate/aggravate the effect of preterm birth on child mental disorders. We examined whether preterm birth associated with maternal PPD symptoms, depressive symptoms trajectories from antenatal to postpartum stage, and whether PPD symptoms mediated/aggravated associations between preterm birth and child mental disorders. Mothers of preterm (n = 125) and term-born (n = 3033) children of the Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction study reported depressive symptoms four times within 8 weeks before and twice within 12 months after childbirth. Child mental and behavioral disorder diagnoses until age 8.4–12.8 years came from medical register. Preterm birth associated with higher PPD symptoms (mean difference = 0.19 SD, 95% CI 0.01, 0.37, p = 0.04), and higher odds (odds ratio = 2.23, 95% CI 1.22, 4.09, p = 0.009) of the mother to belong to a group that had consistently high depressive symptoms levels trajectory from antenatal to postpartum stage. PPD symptoms partially mediated and aggravated the association between preterm birth and child mental disorders. Preterm birth, maternal PPD symptoms and child mental disorders are associated, calling for timely prevention interventions.

The placenta is a central organ during early development, influencing trajectories of health and disease. DNA methylation (DNAm) studies of human placenta improve our understanding of how its function relates to disease risk. However, DNAm studies can be biased by cell type heterogeneity, so it is essential to control for this in order to reduce confounding and increase precision. Computational cell type deconvolution approaches have proven to be very useful for this purpose. For human placenta, however, an assessment of the performance of these estimation methods is still lacking. Here, we examine the performance of a newly available reference-based cell type estimation approach and compare it to an often-used reference-free cell type estimation approach, namely RefFreeEWAS, in placental genome-wide DNAm samples taken at birth and from chorionic villus biopsies early in pregnancy using three independent studies comprising over 1000 samples. We found both reference-free and reference-based estimated cell type proportions to have predictive value for DNAm, however, reference-based cell type estimation outperformed reference-free estimation for the majority of data sets. Reference-based cell type estimations mirror previous histological knowledge on changes in cell type proportions through gestation. Further, CpGs whose variation in DNAm was largely explained by reference-based estimated cell type proportions were in the proximity of genes that are highly tissue-specific for placenta. This was not the case for reference-free estimated cell type proportions. We provide a list of these CpGs as a resource to help researchers to interpret results of existing studies and improve future DNAm studies of human placenta.

Background: This study examined differences in ADHD symptoms and diagnosis between preterm and term-born adults (≥18 years), and tested if ADHD is related to gestational age, birth weight, multiple births, or neonatal complications in preterm borns. Methods: (1) A systematic review compared ADHD symptom self-reports and diagnosis between preterm and term-born adults published in PubMed, Web of Science, and PROQUEST until April 2021; (2) a one-stage Individual Participant Data(IPD) meta-analysis (n= 1385 preterm, n = 1633 term; born 1978–1995) examined differences in self-reported ADHD symptoms[age 18–36 years]; and (3) a population-based register-linkage study of all live births in Finland (01/01/1987–31/12/1998; n = 37538 preterm, n = 691,616 term) examined ADHD diagnosis risk in adulthood (≥18 years) until 31/12/2016. Results: Systematic review results were conflicting. In the IPD meta-analysis, ADHD symptoms levels were similar across groups (mean z-score difference 0.00;95% confidence interval [95% CI] −0.07, 0.07). Whereas in the register-linkage study, adults born preterm had a higher relative risk (RR) for ADHD diagnosis compared to term controls (RR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.12, 1.41, p < 0.001). Among preterms, as gestation length (RR = 0.93, 95% CI 0.89, 0.97, p < 0.001) and SD birth weight z-score (RR = 0.88, 95% CI 0.80, 0.97, p < 0.001) increased, ADHD risk decreased. Conclusions: While preterm adults may not report higher levels of ADHD symptoms, their risk of ADHD diagnosis in adulthood is higher.

Objective: In the context of the importance of elucidating the determinants of the initial, newborn setting of telomere length (TL), it is increasingly evident that maternal stress and stress-related processes during pregnancy play a major role. Although psychological resilience may function as a buffer, research in this area has not yet examined its potential role vis-à-vis that of stress. The authors examined the relationship between maternal psychological resilience during pregnancy and newborn TL. Methods: In a sample of 656 mother-child dyads from the Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction cohort, multiple serial assessments were conducted over the course of pregnancy to quantify maternal stress, negative and positive emotional responses to pregnancy events, positive affect, and perceived social support. Principal component analysis identified two latent factors: stress and positivity. A measure of resilience was computed by regressing the positivity factor on the stress factor, in order to quantify positivity after accounting for stress. TL was measured using quantitative polymerase chain reaction in leukocytes extracted from cord blood shortly after birth. Linear regression was used to predict newborn TL from maternal resilience during pregnancy, adjusting for other potential determinants. Results: Maternal stress significantly predicted shorter newborn TL (β=−0.079), and positivity significantly predicted longer TL (β=0.135). Maternal resilience (positivity accounting for stress) was significantly and positively associated with newborn TL (β=0.114, 95% CI=0.035, 0.189), with each standard deviation increase in resilience predicting 12% longer newborn TL. Conclusions: The results indicate that maternal psychological resilience may exert a salubrious effect on offspring telomere biology and highlight the importance of enhancing maternal mental health and well-being during pregnancy.

Higher maternal vitamin D concentration during pregnancy is associated with better child mental health. Negative affectivity, an early-emerging temperamental trait, indicates an increased risk of psychopathology. We investigated if maternal early/mid-pregnancy 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and neonatal cord blood 25(OH)D concentrations are associated with Negative affectivity in infancy. We studied term-born infants from the vitamin D Intervention in Infants study (VIDI, n = 777, follow-up rate 80%, Finland), and the Generation R Study (n = 1505, follow-up rate 40%, Netherlands). We measured maternal serum 25(OH)D at 6–27 weeks (VIDI) or 18–25 weeks (Generation R) of pregnancy, and cord blood 25(OH)D at birth (both cohorts). Caregivers rated infant Negative affectivity at 11.7 months (VIDI) or 6.5 months (Generation R) using the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Using linear regression, we tested associations between 25(OH)D and Negative affectivity adjusted for infant age, sex, season of 25(OH)D measurement, maternal age, education, smoking, and body-mass-index. Per 10 nmol/l increase in maternal early/mid-pregnancy 25(OH)D, infant Negative affectivity decreased by 0.02 standard deviations (95% confidence interval [CI] − 0.06, − 0.004) in VIDI, and 0.03 standard deviations (95% CI − 0.03, − 0.01) in Generation R. Cord blood 25(OH)D was associated with Negative affectivity in Generation R (− 0.03, 95% CI − 0.05, − 0.01), but not VIDI (0.00, 95% CI − 0.02, 0.02). Lower maternal 25(OH)D concentrations were consistently associated with higher infant Negative affectivity, while associations between cord blood 25(OH)D concentrations and Negative affectivity were less clear. Maternal vitamin D status during early- and mid-pregnancy may be linked with early-emerging differences in offspring behavior.

Context: Comprehensive assessment of metabolism in maternal obesity and pregnancy disorders can provide information about the shared maternal-fetal milieu and give insight into both maternal long-term health and intergenerational transmission of disease burden. Objective: To assess levels, profiles, and change in the levels of metabolic measures during pregnancies complicated by obesity, gestational diabetes (GDM), or hypertensive disorders. Design, Setting and Participant: A secondary analysis of 2 study cohorts, PREDO and RADIEL, including 741 pregnant women. Main Outcome Measures: We assessed 225 metabolic measures by nuclear magnetic resonance in blood samples collected at median 13 [interquartile range (IQR) 12.4–13.7], 20 (IQR 19.3–23.0), and 28 (27.0–35.0) weeks of gestation. Results: Across all 3 time points women with obesity [body mass index (BMI) ≥ 30kg/m²] in comparison to normal weight (BMI 18.5–24.99 kg/m²) had significantly higher levels of most very-low-density lipoprotein-related measures, many fatty and most amino acids, and more adverse metabolic profiles. The change in the levels of most metabolic measures during pregnancy was smaller in obese than in normal weight women. GDM, preeclampsia, and chronic hypertension were associated with metabolic alterations similar to obesity. The associations of obesity held after adjustment for GDM and hypertensive disorders, but many of the associations with GDM and hypertensive disorders were rendered nonsignificant after adjustment for BMI and the other pregnancy disorders. Conclusions: This study shows that the pregnancy-related metabolic change is smaller in women with obesity, who display metabolic perturbations already in early pregnancy. Metabolic alterations of obesity and pregnancy disorders resembled each other suggesting a shared metabolic origin.

Background: Maternal depression during pregnancy increases the risk for adverse developmental outcomes in children. However, the underpinning biological mechanisms remain unknown. We tested whether depression was associated with levels of and change in the inflammatory state during pregnancy, if early pregnancy overweight/obesity or diabetes/hypertensive pregnancy disorders accounted for/mediated these effects, and if depression added to the inflammation that typically accompanies these conditions. Methods: We analyzed plasma high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and glycoprotein acetyls at three consecutive stages during pregnancy, derived history of depression diagnoses before pregnancy from Care Register for Healthcare (HILMO) (N = 375) and self-reports (N = 347) and depressive symptoms during pregnancy using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale completed concurrently to blood samplings (N = 295). Data on early pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and diabetes/hypertensive pregnancy disorders came from medical records. Results: Higher overall hsCRP levels, but not change, during pregnancy were predicted by history of depression diagnosis before pregnancy [HILMO: mean difference (MD) = 0.69 standard deviation (s.d.) units; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.26–1.11, self-report: MD = 0.56 s.d.; 95% CI 0.17–0.94] and higher depressive symptoms during pregnancy (0.06 s.d. per s.d. increase; 95% CI 0.00–0.13). History of depression diagnosis before pregnancy also predicted higher overall glycoprotein acetyls (HILMO: MD = 0.52 s.d.; 95% CI 0.12–0.93). These associations were not explained by diabetes/hypertensive disorders, but were accounted for and mediated by early pregnancy BMI. Furthermore, in obese women, overall hsCRP levels increased as depressive symptoms during pregnancy increased (p = 0.006 for interaction). Conclusions: Depression is associated with a proinflammatory state during pregnancy. These associations are mediated by early

Background: Epigenetic clocks have been used to indicate differences in biological states between individuals of same chronological age. However, so far, only few studies have examined epigenetic aging in newborns—especially regarding different gestational or perinatal tissues. In this study, we investigated which birth- and pregnancy-related variables are most important in predicting gestational epigenetic age acceleration or deceleration (i.e., the deviation between gestational epigenetic age estimated from the DNA methylome and chronological gestational age) in chorionic villus, placenta and cord blood tissues from two independent study cohorts (ITU, n = 639 and PREDO, n = 966). We further characterized the correspondence of epigenetic age deviations between these tissues. Results: Among the most predictive factors of epigenetic age deviations in single tissues were child sex, birth length, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal mental disorders until childbirth, delivery mode and parity. However, the specific factors related to epigenetic age deviation and the direction of association differed across tissues. In individuals with samples available from more than one tissue, relative epigenetic age deviations were not correlated across tissues. Conclusion: Gestational epigenetic age acceleration or deceleration was not related to more favorable or unfavorable factors in one direction in the investigated tissues, and the relative epigenetic age differed between tissues of the same person. This indicates that epigenetic age deviations associate with distinct, tissue specific, factors during the gestational and perinatal period. Our findings suggest that the epigenetic age of the newborn should be seen as a characteristic of a specific tissue, and less as a general characteristic of the child itself

Background: Maternal antenatal stress, including symptoms of depression, anxiety and perceived stress, is associated with mental and behavioral problems in children. Whether it is associated with child mental and behavioral disorders remains uncertain. We examined if maternal antenatal symptoms of depression, anxiety and perceived stress were associated with mental and behavioral disorders in their children, if the associations varied according to gestational week, stress type, fluctuating or consistently high symptoms, and if they were driven by maternal or paternal lifetime mood or anxiety disorders. Methods: 3365 mothers participating in the Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction (PREDO) study completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the State Anxiety Inventory and the Perceived Stress Scale up to 14 times throughout pregnancy. The Care Register for Health Care provided data on mental and behavioral (including neurodevelopmental) disorders for their children from birth (11/07/2006–07/24/2010) until 12/31/2016 and for parental lifetime mood and anxiety disorders until 12/31/2016. Results: The hazard of any childhood mental and behavioral disorder (HR=1.91, 95% CI: 1.39–2.51) was significantly higher for children whose mothers reported consistently high in comparison to consistently low levels of all types of stress throughout pregnancy. The associations remained significant when adjusted for maternal and paternal lifetime mood and anxiety disorders (and their comorbidity and timing and mood disorder type). Conclusions: Maternal antenatal stress is associated with higher risk of childhood mental and behavioral disorders. Efforts to reduce maternal antenatal stress should be given a high priority to improve child mental health.

Background: Synthetic glucocorticoids, to enhance fetal maturation, are a standard treatment when preterm birth before 34 gestational weeks is imminent. While morbidity- and mortality-related benefits may outweigh potential neurodevelopmental harms in children born preterm (<37 gestational weeks), this may not hold true when pregnancy continues to term (⩾37 gestational weeks). We studied the association of antenatal betamethasone exposure on child mental health in preterm and term children. Methods: We included 4708 women and their children, born 2006–2010, from the Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction Study with information on both antenatal betamethasone treatment and child mental and behavioral disorders from the Finnish Hospital Discharge Register from the child’s birth to 31 December 2016. Additional follow-up data on mother-reported psychiatric problems and developmental milestones were available for 2640 children at 3.5 (s.d. = 0.07) years-of-age. Results: Of the children, 187 were born preterm (61 betamethasone-exposed) and 4521 at term (56 betamethasone-exposed). The prevalence of any mental and behavioral, psychological development, emotional and behavioral, and comorbid disorders was higher in the betamethasone-exposed, compared to non-exposed children [odds ratio 2.76 (95% confidence interval 1.76–4.32), 3.61 (2.19–5.95), 3.29 (1.86–5.82), and 6.04 (3.25–11.27), respectively]. Levels of psychiatric problems and prevalence of failure to meet the age-appropriate development in personal-social skills were also higher in mother-reports of betamethasone-exposed children. These associations did not vary significantly between preterm and term children. Conclusions: Antenatal betamethasone exposure may be associated with mental health problems in children born preterm and in those who end up being born at term.

Background: Perinatal depression carries adverse effects on maternal health and child development, but genetic underpinnings remain unclear. We investigated the polygenic risk of perinatal depressive symptoms. Methods: About 742 women from the prospective Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction cohort were genotyped and completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale 14 times during the prenatal period and twice up to 12 months postpartum. Polygenic risk scores for major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and cross-disorder were calculated using multiple p-value thresholds. Results: Polygenic risk scores for major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and cross-disorder, but not bipolar disorder, were associated with higher prenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms (0.8%–1% increase per one standard deviation increase in polygenic risk scores). Prenatal depressive symptoms accounted for and mediated the associations between the polygenic risk scores and postpartum depressive symptoms (effect size proportions-mediated: 52.2%–88.0%). Further, the polygenic risk scores were associated with 1.24–1.45-fold odds to belong to the group displaying consistently high compared with consistently low depressive symptoms through out the prenatal and postpartum periods. Conclusions: Polygenic risk scores for major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and cross-disorder in non-perinatal populations generalize to perinatal depressive symptoms and may afford to identify women for timely preventive interventions.

Preterm birth research is poised to explore the mental health of adults born very preterm(VP; <32⁺⁰ weeks gestational age) and/or very low birth weight(VLBW; <1500g) through individual participant data meta-analyses, but first the previous evidence needs to be understood. We systematically reviewed and assessed the quality of the evidence from VP/VLBW studies with mental health symptoms or disorders appearing in adulthood, excluding childhood onset disorders. Participants (≥18 years, born >1970) included VP/VLBW individuals with controls born at term(≥37⁺⁰ weeks) or with normal birth weight(NBW; ≥2500g). Thirteen studies were included. Studies consistently showed an increased risk for psychotropic medication use for VP/VLBW adults in comparison to NBW/term controls, but whether VP/VLBW adults have an increased risk for mental health disorders or symptoms appearing in adulthood remains uncertain. The quality of the evidence was moderate (65.8%) to high (34.2%). Further research in larger samples is needed.

Background: Prenatal exposure to environmental adversities, including maternal overweight/obesity, diabetes/hypertensive disorders, or mood/anxiety disorders, increases the risk for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in children. However, the underlying biological mechanisms remain elusive. We tested whether maternal antenatal inflammation was associated with the number of neurodevelopmental delay areas in children and whether it mediated the association between exposure to any prenatal environmental adversity and child neurodevelopmental delay. Methods: Mother-child dyads (N = 418) from the PREDO (Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction) study were followed up to 10.8 years. We analyzed maternal plasma high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and glycoprotein acetyls at 3 consecutive antenatal time points, measured maternal body mass index in early pregnancy, extracted data on diabetes/hypertensive disorders in pregnancy from medical records, and extracted data on mood/anxiety disorders until childbirth from the Care Register for Health Care. To estimate the number of neurodevelopmental delay areas in children across cognitive, motor, and social functioning, we pooled data from the Care Register for Health Care on psychological development disorders with mother-reported Ages and Stages Questionnaire data on developmental milestones. Results: Higher levels of maternal high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and glycoprotein acetyls at and across all 3 antenatal time points were associated with 1.30- to 2.36-fold (p values < 0.02) increased relative risk for higher number of areas of child neurodevelopmental delay. Higher maternal inflammation across the 3 time points also mediated the effect of any prenatal environmental adversity on child neurodevelopmental delay. Conclusions: Higher levels of maternal inflammation, especially when persisting throughout pregnancy, increase a child’s risk of neurodevelopmental delay and medi

The associations of maternal hypertensive pregnancy disorders with offspring mental disorders remain unclear. We examined whether maternal hypertensive disorders and maximum blood pressure during pregnancy predict offspring childhood mental disorders, whether the associations are independent of maternal and paternal mental disorders and paternal hypertensive disorders, independent of or additive with maternal early pregnancy overweight/obesity and diabetes mellitus disorders, and mediated or moderated by preterm birth, small-for-gestational-age birth and neonatal intensive care unit admission. Our prospective study comprised 4743 mother-child dyads of Prediction and Prevention of Preeclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction study. Women were recruited to the study in early pregnancy at Finnish maternity hospitals. Children were born 2006 to 2010 and followed-up until December 31, 2016, to ages 6.4 to 10.8 years. Hypertensive pregnancy disorders were identified from medical records, Medical Birth Register, and Care Register for Health Care. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured at antenatal clinics and hospital visits. Mental disorder diagnoses were identified from Care Register for Health Care. Maternal gestational and chronic hypertension, preeclampsia and its severity increased offspring hazard of any childhood mental disorder. The associations of preeclampsia (hazard ratio=1.66 [95% CI, 1.14–2.42]) and severe preeclampsia (hazard ratio=2.01 [95% CI, 1.08–3.73]) were independent of all covariates. Maternal hypertensive and diabetes mellitus disorders and overweight/obesity also additively increased offspring hazard of mental disorders. Preterm and small-for-gestational-age births and neonatal intensive care unit admission partially mediated the effects of any and severe preeclampsia on offspring mental disorders. To conclude, maternal hypertensive pregnancy disorders carry adverse consequences for offspring mental health.

Epigenetic processes, including DNA methylation (DNAm), are among the mechanisms allowing integration of genetic and environmental factors to shape cellular function. While many studies have investigated either environmental or genetic contributions to DNAm, few have assessed their integrated effects. Here we examine the relative contributions of prenatal environmental factors and genotype on DNA methylation in neonatal blood at variably methylated regions (VMRs) in 4 independent cohorts (overall n = 2365). We use Akaike’s information criterion to test which factors best explain variability of methylation in the cohort-specific VMRs: several prenatal environmental factors (E), genotypes in cis (G), or their additive (G + E) or interaction (GxE) effects. Genetic and environmental factors in combination best explain DNAm at the majority of VMRs. The CpGs best explained by either G, G + E or GxE are functionally distinct. The enrichment of genetic variants from GxE models in GWAS for complex disorders supports their importance for disease risk.

Objective: Maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy have been associated with poor offspring sleep. Yet, it remains unknown whether depressive symptoms throughout pregnancy are more harmful to the child than depressive symptoms only during certain time periods in pregnancy, whether associations are specific to pregnancy stage, whether maternal symptomatology after pregnancy mediates or adds to the prenatal effects, and whether any effects are specific to some child sleep characteristics. Methods: A total of 2321 mothers from the Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction (PREDO) study completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale biweekly between gestational weeks + days 12 + 0/13 + 6 and 38 + 0/39 + 6. At child’s mean age of 3.5 (standard deviation = 0.7) years, mothers completed the Beck Depression Inventory−II and answered questions on child sleep quantity and quality using the Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire (BISQ) and sleep disorders using the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children. Results: Maternal depressive symptoms showed high stability throughout pregnancy. Children of mothers with clinically significant symptomatology throughout pregnancy had shorter mother-rated sleep duration, longer sleep latency, higher odds for waking up two or more times during the night and for total and several specific sleep disorders. These associations were robust to covariates. However, maternal depressive symptoms at the child follow-up fully mediated the associations with sleep duration and awakenings, partially mediated those with sleep latency and disorders, and added to the effects on sleep disorders. Conclusion: Maternal depressive symptoms throughout pregnancy are associated with mother-rated child sleep quantity, quality, and disorders. Maternal depressive symptoms at child follow-up mediate and add to the prenatal adverse effects on child sleep characteristics.

Whether infant regulatory behavior problems already in the first month of life indicate an increased risk of childhood neurobehavioral problems, and whether maternal depression in the postpartum and early childhood underpins these associations remain unclear. Altogether, 2049–2364 mothers from the Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction (PREDO) study completed the Neonatal Perception Inventory on regulatory behavior problems at the infant’s age of 15.6 days (SD 3.2, range 1–30), the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised on temperament at 6.5 months (SD 0.9, range 4.2–12.4), and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-3 on developmental milestones and the Child Behavior Checklist on behavioral problems at 3.5 years (SD 0.7, range 1.9–6.0). Maternal depressive symptoms were measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (infancy follow-ups) and Beck Depression Inventory-II (childhood follow-up). Father-rated infant temperament and paternal depressive symptoms were also available (n = 1474). Higher levels of infant regulatory behavior problems predicted higher levels of mother- and father-rated negative affectivity temperament (0.13 SD units per SD unit, 95% confidence interval 0.09–0.17; and 0.09, 0.04–0.14, respectively), lower levels of mother-rated orienting/regulation temperament (− 0.09, − 0.13 to − 0.05) and problem-solving skills (− 0.12, − 0.21 to − 0.04), and higher levels of Externalizing (0.07, 0.03–0.11) and Total behavioral problems (0.07, 0.03–0.11). Regulatory behaviors partially mediated the effect of maternal depressive symptoms. Regulatory behavior problems already during the first month of life predict neurobehavioral outcomes, and partially mediate the effect of maternal depressive symptoms. Our study may inform design of interventions aimed at timely prevention in children at risk.

Early life stress (ELS) may increase the risk of anxiety throughout the life course. Whether this effect extends to late adulthood is poorly known. In our study comprising 1872 participants from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study born in 1934–1944, we investigated the association of various forms of ELS and their accumulation with self-reported anxiety symptoms at the age of 65–77 years. Data on childhood socioeconomic status and separation from parents were based on national registers for all participants. Information on self-reported emotional and physical trauma, parental divorce, and death of a family member in childhood was obtained from 1277 participants. We found that experiencing emotional trauma, physical trauma, and low socioeconomic status in childhood were associated with increased anxiety symptoms in late adulthood [B = 0.44 (95% CI = 0.31–0.58); B = 0.33 (95% CI = 0.20–0.46); B = 0.10 (95% CI = 0.01–0.19), respectively]. These associations remained significant even after controlling for other forms of ELS. Accumulation of early life stress also increased the levels of late-adulthood anxiety symptoms and the risk of anxiety regarded as clinically significant. Screening for potentially stressful childhood experiences in elderly populations may help identifying individuals with increased anxiety symptoms and planning preventive and therapeutic interventions for those exposed to ELS.

Background: Previous studies have linked maternal obesity with depressive symptoms during and after pregnancy. It remains unknown whether obesity associates with consistently elevated depressive symptoms throughout pregnancy, predicts symptoms postpartum when accounting for antenatal symptoms, and if co-morbid hypertensive and diabetic disorders add to these associations. We addressed these questions in a sample of Finnish women whom we followed during and after pregnancy. Methods: Early pregnancy body mass index, derived from the Finnish Medical Birth Register and hospital records in 3234 PREDO study participants, was categorized into underweight (<18.5 kg/m²), normal weight (18.5–24.99 kg/m²), overweight (25–29.99 kg/m²), and obese (⩾30 kg/m²) groups. The women completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale biweekly during pregnancy, and at 2.4 (S.D. = 1.2) and/or 28.2 (S.D. = 4.2) weeks after pregnancy. Results: In comparison to normal weight women, overweight, and obese women reported higher levels of depressive symptoms and had higher odds of clinically significant depressive symptoms during (23% and 43%, respectively) and after pregnancy (22% and 36%, respectively). Underweight women had 68% higher odds of clinically significant depressive symptoms after pregnancy. Overweight and obesity also predicted higher depressive symptoms after pregnancy in women not reporting clinically relevant symptomatology during pregnancy. Hypertensive and diabetic disorders did not explain or add to these associations. Conclusions: Maternal early pregnancy overweight and obesity and depressive symptoms during and after pregnancy are associated. Mental health promotion should be included as an integral part of lifestyle interventions in early pregnancy obesity and extended to benefit also overweight and underweight women.

Background: Maternal depressive symptoms during and after pregnancy predict poorer child neurodevelopment. The effects of timing, symptom severity, and additive influences remain unclear. Methods: A total of 2,231 mothers of the Prediction and Prevention of Pre‐eclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction (PREDO) study completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale biweekly up to 14 times during pregnancy and twice up to 12 months after pregnancy. At child’s age 1.9–5.7 years, the mothers completed the Beck Depression Inventory‐II on their concurrent depressive symptoms and Ages and Stages Questionnaire on child developmental milestones. Results: Higher mean maternal depressive symptoms, each biweekly score, and consistently clinically relevant symptomatology during pregnancy predicted lower total developmental milestones, fine and gross motor, communication, problem solving, and personal/social skills scores in children. Although maternal depressive symptoms up to 12 months after pregnancy and in early childhood also predicted lower developmental milestones scores, developmental milestones scores were the lowest in children whose mothers’ depressive symptoms were above the clinical cutoff either only during pregnancy, both during and up to 12 months after pregnancy, or at each three time‐points. Conclusion: Maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy, in the first year postpartum and in early childhood are associated with poorer child neurodevelopment. Our findings further suggest that antenatal and postpregnancy depression have additive effects on neurodevelopment. Children of mothers with the most chronic and severe depressive symptoms during pregnancy had the most neurodevelopmental disadvantages. Our findings emphasize the adverse effects of maternal depression during and after pregnancy and in early childhood on child neurodevelopment.

Background: Molecular aging biomarkers, such as epigenetic age predictors, predict risk factors of premature aging, and morbidity/mortality more accurately than chronological age in middle-aged and elderly populations. Yet, it remains elusive if such biomarkers are associated with aging-related outcomes earlier in life when individuals begin to diverge in aging trajectories. We tested if the Horvath epigenetic age predictor is associated with pubertal, neuroendocrine, psychiatric, and cognitive aging-related outcomes in a sample of 239 adolescents, 11.0–13.2 years-old. Results: Each year increase in epigenetic age acceleration (AA) was associated with 0.06 SD units higher weight-for-age, 0.08 SD units taller height-for-age, −0.09 SD units less missed from the expected adult height, 13 and 16% higher odds, respectively, for each stage increase in breast/genitals development on the Tanner Staging Questionnaire and pubertal stage on the Pubertal Development Scale, 4.2% higher salivary cortisol upon awakening, and 18 to 34% higher odds for internalizing and thought problems on the Child Behavior Checklist (p values < 0.045). AA was not significantly associated with cognition. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that already in adolescence, AA is associated with physiological age acceleration, which may index risk of earlier aging. AA may identify individuals for preventive interventions decades before aging-related diseases become manifest.