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The LGN7 database is a grid file with a resolution of 25*25 m. The database provides the Dutch land use for onereference year, the year 2012. The legend consists of 39 land use classes, distinguishing the mainagricultural crops, forest, water, nature and urban classes. The LGN7 file has used the following additional existing data sources:• Top10NL (version 2012).• Bestand BodemGebruik 2008 (BBG2008).• Begrenzing Bebouwd Gebied (BG2003).• Basiskaart Natuur 2012 (BKN2012).• Landelijk Grondgebruik Nederland versie 6 (LGN6).• BasisRegistratie Percelen 2012 (BRP2012). In addition, multi-temporal satellite images (2007/2008 and 2012) and aerial photos (2006/2008, 2012) are usedto detect land use changes. The satellite images are also used for the control of the BRP crops and for theclassification of the crop plots missing in the BRP. The big amount of satellite images makes it possible tomonitor crop development throughout the year.This makes it easier to distinguish between the different crops. The dataset is public which is made possible by WOT Natuur & Milieu, Het Waterschapshuis, InterprovinciaalOverleg, RIVM and Wageningen Environmental Research.

LGN2018 is a grid file that shows Dutch land use in 2018 with a spatial resolution of 5m. The legend consists of 48 land use classes, distinguishing the main agricultural crops, forest, water, nature and urban classes. In addition to increasing the spatial detail (from 25*25m to 5*5m), the thematic detail of especially the nature areas has been greatly improved by, among other things, the use of multi-temporal Sentinel-2 images and the AHN2/3 dataset. In addition to the Sentinel-2 images and the AHN2/3 dataset, the following datasets were used to make LGN2018: Top10NL (version November 2018), Basis Registratie Percelen 2018 (BRP2018), Bestand BodemGebruik 2015 (BBG2015), BasisKaart Natuur 2017 (BKN2017), and LGN7. In addition, aerial photos from 2018 have been used. The dataset is public which is made possible by WOT Natuur & Milieu, Het Waterschapshuis, Interprovinciaal Overleg, RIVM and Wageningen Environmental Research.

Invasive alien species (IAS) are species that have been introduced to locations outside of their distributional range via human transport. In their novel exotic range, these species reach quickly reproduce and/or spread, hence the connotation “invasive”. Examples of well-known problematic IAS include tropical mosquitos bearing diseases such as Zika virus, predatory animals such as the lionfish or black rats, and plants blanketing anything they encounter. IAS are considered to be a major threat to biodiversity with extensive societal and economic consequences. However, invasive species do not become invasive overnight; invasion is the final and most detrimental stage of a much longer process. The aim of this thesis was to disentangle the natural and anthropogenic causes and consequences of species invasion by following exotic species from their origin to their impact. This thesis is structured along the different stages of species invasion and answers three overall research questions: Where do exotic species come from?; Where do exotic species end up?; What are the consequences of exotic species invasion?. The first question Where do exotic species come from? is answered in Chapter 2 that showed that exotic species and species endangered with extinction inhabit the same locations but contrast each other in terms of their traits. Both groups are overrepresented on human-impacted oceanic islands. The question: Where do exotic species end up? is answered by Chapters 3-5. In this section I conclude that within islands invaded by several exotic reptiles, these species are found almost exclusively in human-impacted environments with open or shrubby vegetation. Conversely, native species reach highest abundances in forest sites (Chapter 3). Hurricanes severely alter available habitats for reptiles (Chapter 4). Native species abundances of the lizard genus Anolis decreased with increasing levels of hurricane-induced habitat change, especially on St. Martin that was severely hit by the hurricanes Irma and Maria. Exotic species varied in their response, but we detected exotic species in previously uninvaded forests. That species from small, less populated islands also get introduced was demonstrated by the first published record of an exotic Saban anole (A. sabanus) found in the harbor of St. Eustatius (Chapter 5). This chapter serves as proof of concept that shipping is an important vector for exotic reptiles. The question What are the consequences of species invasion? is answered in Chapters 6-8, featuring the extensive invasion of the Coralita vine (A. leptopus) on St. Eustatius, impacting approximately one-third of this island. Coralita significantly alters the species composition of arthropod communities on St. Eustatius. After invasion the unique communities in urban and natural sites become homogenized to the point where they become undistinguishable (Chapter 6). The plant also has societal consequences through the reduced availability of ecosystem services (ES) (Chapter 7-8). Through a novel methodology we were able to provide estimates of ES value loss to the economy of St. Eustatius (Chapter 7-8), amounting to 42.000 dollar per year in case 3% of the island would be dominantly covered by the plant, rising to 640.000 dollar per year in case the entire range of Coralita would reach dominant coverage. We estimate that it requires a total investment of 12,7 million dollars (12% of GDP) to revert back from the worst case scenario to a Coralita-free situation. In general based on the work in this thesis I can conclude that the process of species invasion is 1) to some extent predictable at its various stages; 2) an important, independent driver of change augmented by several natural and anthropogenic factors; and 3) has major consequences for biological systems as well as human welfare and wellbeing through invasion-induced changes in ecosystem services.

Invasive alien species (IAS) are species that have been introduced to locations outside of their distributional range via human transport. In their novel exotic range, these species reach quickly reproduce and/or spread, hence the connotation “invasive”. Examples of well-known problematic IAS include tropical mosquitos bearing diseases such as Zika virus, predatory animals such as the lionfish or black rats, and plants blanketing anything they encounter. IAS are considered to be a major threat to biodiversity with extensive societal and economic consequences. However, invasive species do not become invasive overnight; invasion is the final and most detrimental stage of a much longer process. The aim of this thesis was to disentangle the natural and anthropogenic causes and consequences of species invasion by following exotic species from their origin to their impact. This thesis is structured along the different stages of species invasion and answers three overall research questions: Where do exotic species come from?; Where do exotic species end up?; What are the consequences of exotic species invasion?. The first question Where do exotic species come from? is answered in Chapter 2 that showed that exotic species and species endangered with extinction inhabit the same locations but contrast each other in terms of their traits. Both groups are overrepresented on human-impacted oceanic islands. The question: Where do exotic species end up? is answered by Chapters 3-5. In this section I conclude that within islands invaded by several exotic reptiles, these species are found almost exclusively in human-impacted environments with open or shrubby vegetation. Conversely, native species reach highest abundances in forest sites (Chapter 3). Hurricanes severely alter available habitats for reptiles (Chapter 4). Native species abundances of the lizard genus Anolis decreased with increasing levels of hurricane-induced habitat change, especially on St. Martin that was severely hit by the hurricanes Irma and Maria. Exotic species varied in their response, but we detected exotic species in previously uninvaded forests. That species from small, less populated islands also get introduced was demonstrated by the first published record of an exotic Saban anole (A. sabanus) found in the harbor of St. Eustatius (Chapter 5). This chapter serves as proof of concept that shipping is an important vector for exotic reptiles. The question What are the consequences of species invasion? is answered in Chapters 6-8, featuring the extensive invasion of the Coralita vine (A. leptopus) on St. Eustatius, impacting approximately one-third of this island. Coralita significantly alters the species composition of arthropod communities on St. Eustatius. After invasion the unique communities in urban and natural sites become homogenized to the point where they become undistinguishable (Chapter 6). The plant also has societal consequences through the reduced availability of ecosystem services (ES) (Chapter 7-8). Through a novel methodology we were able to provide estimates of ES value loss to the economy of St. Eustatius (Chapter 7-8), amounting to 42.000 dollar per year in case 3% of the island would be dominantly covered by the plant, rising to 640.000 dollar per year in case the entire range of Coralita would reach dominant coverage. We estimate that it requires a total investment of 12,7 million dollars (12% of GDP) to revert back from the worst case scenario to a Coralita-free situation. In general based on the work in this thesis I can conclude that the process of species invasion is 1) to some extent predictable at its various stages; 2) an important, independent driver of change augmented by several natural and anthropogenic factors; and 3) has major consequences for biological systems as well as human welfare and wellbeing through invasion-induced changes in ecosystem services.

Biomass supply for bioenergy production is recognized as a crucial strategy to meet climate targets, avoid adverse impacts from climate change and contribute to the transition to a sustainable energy system. In addition, biomass-derived products are also expected to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels in other sectors (e.g., chemical sector). Despite the potential benefits of bio-based value chains, there are still sustainability risks associated with biomass production, especially related to Land Use Change (LUC) and supply chain configuration. This thesis presents the sustainability assessments of existing and novel bio-based value chains, in bio-based materials, electricity and advance-fuels, under context-specific conditions. In addition, it explores how the sustainability performance is shaped by context-specific conditions, the sustainability synergies and trade-offs arising from biomass production and supply chain configuration, and how the context-specific conditions influence sustainable biomass potentials. It also provides a novel framework that allows to combine spatial data on land use transitions, biophysical characteristics and other contexts-specific conditions to determine sustainability impacts at various regional or national scales. The results show that biomass potentials and sustainability impacts of bio-based value chains depend on context-specific conditions and are determined largely by LUC. It is shown that to minimize sustainability trade-offs it is important to consider context-specific conditions, prioritizing firstly, land use transitions and secondly, feedstock types. Furthermore, the novel framework is a significant step forward in understanding and assessing the sustainability impacts of feedstock production and other stages in bio-based value chains.

Deze interactieve PDF beschrijft de monitoring en rapportage van de emissies en verwijderingen van broeikasgassen door landgebruik, landgebruiksveranderingen en bosbouw (LULUCF) in Nederland.

In light of the projected climate change for the coming decades, there is an urgent need for multifunctional landscapes that are capable to provide a diversity of ecosystem services. This requires a better understanding of social and ecological factors that influence how these landscapes are managed and how this, in turn, influences the provision of ecosystem services. Land Use Land Cover (LULC) changes are one of the main factors that lead to spatiotemporal changes of ecosystems services. As such, the identification of the main socioeconomic drivers of LULC can give important insights about the drivers of ecosystem services. However, the analysis of ecosystem services in a context of socio-ecological systems is still underdeveloped. Brazil has witnessed intense changes in LULC in the last five centuries, which may have influenced the provision of ecosystem services at local, regional and global scales. In the southeast mountain area of the Atlantic Forest biome, the Zona da Mata de Minas Gerais is characterized by a heterogeneous landscape mosaic composed of pasture and coffee fields intermingled with forest fragments, which are predominantly inhabited and managed by family farmers. The Zona da Mata is considered a complex socio-ecological system and is an interesting case to study the spatio-temporal provision of ecosystem services. In Chapter 2, I assessed the LULC changes from 1986 to 2015 and their main socioeconomic drivers. By combining data obtained from satellite images, workshops and secondary data, I showed that forest and coffee areas increased, and pasture decreased. These changes were associated with government measures to protect the environment, financial support of family farmers, migration to cities and the agroecological movement. A scenarios analysis of contrasting socio-economic narratives indicated that sustainable measures taken by the government to protect the environment and support family farmers with financial credit will lead to increase forest and coffee areas in the Green Road scenario. In contrast, the socioeconomic development in the Fossil Fuel scenario, which projects a decline in environmental protection and focuses on rapid economic development, there will be a decline in forest areas. In Chapter 3, I explored the spatial variation of ecosystem services from 1986 to 2015 and the impacts of LULC changes on ecosystem services provision levels and their interactions. To map the spatio variation of ecosystem services, I used the LULC maps from 1986 and 2015 (Chapter 2) and the InVEST model. This analysis indicated that the conversion of forest to pasture has strong negative impacts on soil erosion control and water flow regulation, manifesting mostly as trade-offs and dis-synergies between ecosystem services. In Chapter 4, I investigated the separate effects of LULC changes and climate on water dynamics from 1990 to 2015, and explored scenarios of LULC change and climate change for 2045. For this purpose, I used the SWAT model and climate data combined with historical and future LULC maps developed in Chapter 2. I found that the variation in climate variables was the main factor for the observed increase in the river streamflow in the study period and that forest can buffer extreme precipitation events. The exploration of future scenarios indicated that the increase in forest cover under the Green Road scenario is expected to decrease the surface runoff water and increase evapotranspiration as compared to the Fossil Fuel scenario, mitigating the impacts of soil erosion and climatic extremes in the region. Projected changes in precipitation and temperature are expected to have negative impacts for agriculture in the future. In Chapter 5, I assessed the impact of climate change on the suitability of Coffea arabica production in the study region and the potential of agroforestry systems to mitigate these impacts. For this, I combined the species distribution model MaxEnt with current and future climate projections. Agroforestry system have the potential to reduce air temperatures under the canopy of trees. I explored the effect of the altered the microclimate in agroforestry systems on the suitability for coffee production by adjusting future climate data to reflect conditions in agroforestry systems. I found that the area suitability for coffee production from the current monoculture coffee systems will decline by 60% under the projected climatic changes. However, the implementation of coffee agroforestry systems can mitigate these negative impacts of climatic change and maintain 75% of the area suitable for coffee production in 2050. Combining social and ecological systems in an interdisciplinary framework, generated insights in the relationships between climate and LULC change, and how this influences several ecosystem services. This framework connects different research fields and allows different stakeholders to work together to find effective ways to work towards multifunctional landscapes that promote the sustainable use of ecosystem services.

Een model wordt gepresenteerd, dat os ontwikkeld om de steun voor landschappelijke regeneratie te vergroten door inzicht te bieden in de relatie tussen landschap en lokale bevolking. Het Sociale Terugkoppeling Model brengt tegengestelde belangen van lokale bevolking, bestuurders en experts in kaart die tot weerstand tegen verandering kunnen leiden; het toont voorwaarden voor succesvolle landschapsregeneratie en biedt een reflectie op specifieke elementen van betrokkenheid waarmee lokale ondersteuning van landschappelijke regeneratie op een mideellange termijn mogelijk is.

Ruwvoer voor mest: veehouders en akkerbouwers hebben baat bij samenwerking. Wetten en wantrouwen staan in de weg. Sector en overheid werken aan een oplossing.

There is a growing availability of climate change information, offered to scientists and policy makers through climate services. However, climate services are not well taken up by the policy-making and planning community. Climate services focus on primary impacts of climate change, e.g., the disclosure of precipitation and temperature data, and this seems insufficient in meeting their needs. In this paper, we argue that, in order to reach the spatial planning community, climate services should take on a wider perspective by translating climate data to policy-relevant indicators and by offering support in the design of adaptation strategies. We argue there should be more focus on translating consequences of climate change to land-use claims and subsequently discuss the validity, consequences and implications of these claims with stakeholders, so they can play a role in spatial planning processes where much of the climate adaptation takes place. The term Climate Adaptation Services is introduced as being a stepwise approach supporting the assessment of vulnerability in a wider perspective and include the design and appraisal of adaptation strategies in a multi-stakeholder setting. We developed the Climate Adaptation Atlas and the Climate Ateliers as tools within the Climate Adaptation Services approach to support decision-making and planning processes. In this paper, we describe the different steps of our approach and report how some of the challenges were addressed.

In het vorige nummer van V-focus is besproken wat het optimale landgebruik voor bodemkwaliteit is op melkveebedrijven met gras en mais, namelijk: 60% blijvend grasland met een lage frequentie van graslandvernieuwing en 20% grasklaver (rode en witte klaver) in rotatie met 20% bouwland. In het hetzelfde nummerwerd uitgerekend dat dit een gemiddeld melkveebedrijf 7.000 euro per jaar oplevert. In het Project Vruchtbare Kringloop Achterhoek en Liemers (VKA) is gekeken wat dit betekent voor de emissie van broeikasgassen. In de kennisgroep Melk&Klimaat van VKA werken melkveehouders, samen met FrieslandCampina, aan het verminderen van de ‘carbonfootprint’ van melk

Support for indigenous peoples has been increasing over the last few decades. This can be seen internationally, as well as in several domestic contexts. The support for indigenous people has been linked to the increasingly prominent impetus to conserve the Earth’s biodiversity and environment. Indigenous people are being recognized for their role in protecting the places in which they live in and that they value in cultural or spiritual terms. This recognition has partly fuelled the support for indigenous lifestyles and the related management of resources. These traditional lifestyles are also presented by activists from within these communities, as a critique of mainstream development. This is echoed by the many activists and activist organizations involved in supporting indigenous people’s causes across the world. A cause that indigenous people have often rallied around is the resistance towards mining on indigenous land. This is a cause that has attracted a significant amount of support, particularly when the land in question had spiritual or cultural value for an indigenous community. Accordingly, there have been several success stories of resistance towards mining on land that indigenous people believed was sacred, in several different continents. This thesis focuses on such narratives in the Indian context. It examines how, why and to what effect, local and international activists got involved in supporting a movement to protect the Niyamgiri Mountain in east-central India from bauxite extraction by Vedanta Resources, a multi-national mining company. The Niyamgiri Mountain was believed to be sacred by the Dongaria Kondh community which lived there and which is generally understood (though not officially recognized) as an indigenous community. The movement, which this thesis refers to as the Niyamgiri Movement, was finally successful – since the mining project was banned by the Indian government. In addition to a focus on this movement, the thesis also compares this movement with the anti-mining movement on the island of Palawan in the Philippines. Indigenous peoples constitute minority groups in many of the countries in the Global South. It is also common for governments in the Global South to promote mining as an economic development strategy. This has led to frequent conflicts between indigenous peoples and mining companies. In some of the countries in the Global South, such as the Philippines, indigenous peoples are given official recognition. Whereas in others, such as India, there are affirmative action programs targeting groups claiming indigenous identity, as well as special legislations aimed at protecting their land, although no official recognition of the indigenous identity of these groups exists. Despite this, in contexts such as India there is often a general cultural understanding that groups which claim an indigenous identity are in some way ‘primordial’ – to use a word that translates best from the Indian context, in which the terms Adi Vasi (Original/Primordial Dwellers) or Adim Janajati (Primordial Tribes) are commonly used for such groups. Given that there is at least some degree of cultural acceptance (if not an official recognition) of the indigenous identity of some of the groups that are entering into conflicts with mining companies, an important question relates to the reasons why local activists may get involved in supporting indigenous struggles against mining and how they may understand indigeneity in this context. Another important question is related to the laws that are applicable in local contexts and which may be used to support the struggles of groups that claim indigenous identity. The Forest Rights Act in India is such a law and the thesis explores how it was used in the context of the Niyamgiri Movement. Finally, it is important to consider how people who are not indigenous and who may not have an activist orientation, can be made to take a sympathetic view of indigenous struggles against mining. In the context of the Niyamgiri Movement in India, this thesis explores how creative representations by activists translated the nature religiosity of the Dongaria Kondhs into familiar terms that mainstream popular discourse in India could identify with. In the thesis, the comparison of the Niyamgiri Movement in India with the anti-mining movement on the island of Palawan in the Philippines examines the way in which social movements in two different nation-state contexts engage with globalized discourses pertaining to the linkages between indigenous issues and conservation discourses. For a deeper examination of the way indigenous people are represented by globalized popular discourses, the thesis examines how images from Hollywood were used to generate sympathy for the Dongaria Kondhs’ cause in the Niyamgiri Movement. An examination of the international activism which supported the Niyamgiri Movement and which has been effective in bringing about the success of the movement i.e. the banning of the mining project on Niyamgiri, is another important focal point of the thesis. A commitment towards exploring the activist politics that is relevant to the lives of indigenous peoples has inspired this thesis, which seeks to understand effective activist strategies and identify problematic ones in relation to the protection of land with cultural or spiritual value for indigenous peoples. Keeping this in view, it explores the insights provided by different theories, in order to use these to contribute towards orienting activist practice towards greater effectiveness as well as higher self-reflexivity.