Search

This work presents a coherent beam combination (CBC) setup that consists of a four square tiled-aperture system with phase and tip-tilt control for each sub-beam. The system works at a wavelength of 1550 nm. Phase locking was performed with the stochastic parallel gradient descent (SPGD) algorithm, using the power reflected by a remote retro reflecting corner cube to a feedback detector located at the laser head. Experiments were performed for targets located at distances of 470 and 870 m during calm and partly cloudy conditions. The SPGD beam combining results are discussed and compared to optical wave propagation simulations. The optical wave propagation models that have previously been validated in a laboratory setting were extended to include atmospheric turbulence. In order to reproduce the experimental results it was important to include the propagation of the feedback signal from the retroreflector to the detector.

Detecting and identifying objects inside a forest edge on the other side of an open field is an important task in defence and security applications. This can be difficult to achieve with passive imaging sensors because of the partial obscuration by the foliage. High-resolution 3D imaging enables separation of hidden objects from branches and leaves and can provide data for detection, recognition, and identification of partly occluded targets. We use a photon counting lidar system with panoramic scanning to produce high quality 3D data for this task. The FOI system is built around the Princeton Lightwave Inc. (PLI) Falcon detector which is a 32×128 pixel array of InGaAs Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes. The system operates at 1557 nm and has been designed for suitable resolution at standoff ranges of 1 to 2 km. In this paper, we investigate the detection capability when combining measurements from multiple measurement positions. A field trial has been performed where data from the same scene was collected from different sensor positions. The system was mounted on a car and moved between different positions along a road. The measurements were performed first without and then with vehicles in the target area. The distance to the forest edge varied between from approximately 1.0 to 1.5 km, and the difference of the angle of incidence was approximately 45 degrees from the outer positions along the road. To merge the data from the different positions we apply registration of the data sets using derived point clouds to transform all data into a common coordinate system. Data from the different sensor positions is analyzed by overlaying the derived point clouds from the different positions. We compare data from different viewpoints to data from only one viewpoint. The results show that the combined point clouds from multiples positions covers more of scene than from a single position. We also perform change detection using registered point clouds from the same measurement positions. In the change detection we found the changes we had introduced (vehicles and equipment).

Single-photon counting lidar using Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GmAPD) arrays can provide high resolution 3D images at kilometer stand-off distances through coincidence processing. 3D data is useful for detection and identification of targets, especially those so occluded by vegetation that only small patches, smaller than the instantaneous field-of-view of a sensor pixel, have free line-of-sight. To cover an area of interest, e.g. the edge of a forest, with spatial resolution high enough to identify targets, a multimegapixel 3D image is needed. Current GmAPD arrays are limited to tens of kilopixels. Even if the technical challenges of larger arrays could be solved, the necessary pulse energy per pixel will still limit the effective number of pixels at longer ranges, especially if nominal ocular hazard distance (NOHD) is a concern or if short pulse fiber lasers should be used. Thus scanning of the sensor field-of-view will probably always be necessary. In this paper we describe activities at FOI to explore the potential of single-photon counting panoramic 3D imaging using a GmAPD array detector. Results from outdoor experiments at up to 1.2 km stand-off distances, in day and night conditions, are shown. The impact of background light, and how this is handled by changing the aperture stop size, is considered. Signal processing techniques to go from scattered photon detections via 3D point clouds to voxel-based scene analysis are described. The results support the position that single-photon counting with GmAPD arrays is suitable for 3D imaging in military applications with kilometer stand-off distances.

Laser radar 3D imaging has the potential to improve target recognition in many scenarios. One case that is challenging for most optical sensors is to recognize targets hidden in vegetation or behind camouflage. The range resolution of timeof- flight 3D sensors allows segmentation of obscuration and target if the surfaces are separated far enough so that they can be resolved as two distances. Systems based on time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) have the potential to resolve surfaces closer to each other compared to laser radar systems based on proportional mode detection technologies and is therefore especially interesting. Photon counting detection is commonly performed with Geigermode Avalanche Photodiodes (GmAPD) that have the disadvantage that they can only detect one photon per laser pulse per pixel. A strong return from an obscuring object may saturate the detector and thus limit the possibility to detect the hidden target even if photons from the target reach the detector. The operational range where good foliage penetration is observed is therefore relatively narrow for GmAPD systems. In this paper we investigate the penetration capability through semi-transparent surfaces for a laser radar with a 128×32 pixel GmAPD array and a 1542 nm wavelength laser operating at a pulse repetition frequency of 90 kHz. In the evaluation a screen was placed behind different canvases with varying transmissions and the detected signals from the surfaces for different laser intensities were measured. The maximum return from the second surface occurs when the total detection probability is around 0.65-0.75 per pulse. At higher laser excitation power the signal from the second surface decreases. To optimize the foliage penetration capability it is thus necessary to adaptively control the laser power to keep the returned signal within this region. In addition to the experimental results, simulations to study the influence of the pulse energy on penetration through foliage in a scene with targets behind vegetation are presented. The optimum detection of targets occurs here at a slightly higher total photon count rate probability because a number of pixel have no obscuration in front the target in their field of view.

Airborne platform effects on lasers and warning sensors (ALWS) has been a European collaborative research project to investigate the effects of platform-related turbulence on optical countermeasure systems, especially missile approach warning systems (MAWS) and directed infrared countermeasures (DIRCM). Field trials have been carried out to study the turbulence effects around a hovering helicopter and behind a turboprop aircraft with engines running on the ground. In addition different methods for modelling the effects have been investigated. In the helicopter trials significant beam wander, scintillations and beam broadening were experienced by narrow divergence laser beams when passing through the down-wash of the hot engine exhaust gases. The measured effects considerably exceed the effects of atmospheric turbulence. Extraction of turbulence parameters for modelling of DIRCM-relevant scenarios show that in most cases the reduction of jamming power and distortion of jamming waveform can be expected to be small. The reduction of effects of turbulence is mainly related to the larger beam divergence and shorter Rayleigh length of DIRCM lasers compared to the experimental probe beams. Measurements using the turboprop platform confirm that tolerable effects on laser beam properties are found when the laser beam passes through the exhaust 15 m behind the outlet where the exhaust gases are starting to cool down. Modelling efforts have shown that time-resolved computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations can be used to study properties of beam propagation in engine exhaust-related turbulence. Because of computational cost and the problem of validating the CFD results the use for system performance simulations is however difficult. The hot exhaust gases emitted from aircraft engines create extreme optical turbulence in a local region. The effects on countermeasure system performance depend both on the system parameters and on the threat characteristics. With present-day DIRCM systems, the effects of even severe turbulence are often tolerable.

Time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) range profiling and imaging provide high resolution laser radar data applicable in several optical remote sensing applications at short and long distances. Excellent range resolution, below centimetres, can be obtained and information about remote objects can be extracted from TCSPC range profiles. The present study describes a TCSPC range profiling system with subcentimetre range resolution applied for remote sensing of objects at short and longer ranges. Experimental results from interrogation of geometrical shapes, reflectance tomographic imaging and range profiling at longer distance in daylight conditions are presented.

Magnifying optical assemblies used for weapon guidance or rifle scopes may possess a threat for a combat vehicle and its personnel. Detection and localisation of optical threats is consequently of interest in military applications. Typically a laser system is used in optics detection, or optical augmentation, to interrogate a scene of interest to localise retroreflected laser radiation. One interesting approach for implementing optics detection on a combat vehicle is to use a continuous scanning scheme. In addition, optics detection can be combined with laser countermeasures, or a laser dazzling function, to efficiently counter an optical threat. An optics detection laser sensor demonstrator has been implemented on a combat vehicle. The sensor consists of a stabilised gimbal and was integrated together with a LEMUR remote electro-optical sight. A narrow laser slit is continuously scanned around the horizon to detect and locate optical threats. Detected threats are presented for the operator within the LEMUR presentation system, and by cueing a countermeasure laser installed in the LEMUR sensor housing threats can be defeated. Results obtained during a field demonstration of the optics detection sensor and the countermeasure laser will be presented. In addition, results obtained using a dual-channel optics detection system designed for false alarm reduction are also discussed.

For performance modelling of optical countermeasure systems simulation of turbulence effects is necessary. Physical optics numerical beam propagation using phase screens is an established method in this respect. In some cases a short sequence of temporally resolved phase screens is available from Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations or from wavefront sensor measurements. It is, however, seldom possible to provide enough sequences and sufficient sequence length for Monte Carlo simulations of system performance utilizing these methods. Therefore, we have investigated the possibility to generate an arbitrary number of longer temporal sequences of phase screens with the same statistical properties for simulation of turbulence, based on an available short phase screen sequence. The method apply Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD), a method used to generate orthogonal modes from a dataset. For discretely sampled sequences the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) algorithm is suitable to extract the set of POD modes. This scheme provides a separate temporal sequence of coefficients for each spatial mode. The next step is to generate new, longer temporal sequences of coefficients with the same statistical properties as those extracted by the SVD algorithm. Finally a new sequence of phase screens is generated by adding all spatial modes. The method is illustrated using data from CFD calculations of a down-scaled jet engine plume. The method is especially suitable for very strong localized turbulence as in aero optics and engine exhaust plumes, but may be useful also for extended turbulence. The use to generate Power-In-Bucket (PIB) sequences for evaluation of turbulence distortion effects is demonstrated. PIB is an important quantity when evaluating e.g. the performance of directed infrared countermeasure (DIRCM) systems.

Time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) is a laser radar technique that can provide range profiling with very high resolution. Range profiles of multiple surface objects and geometrical shapes are revealed using multiple laser pulses with very low pulse energy. The method relies on accurate time measurements between a laser pulse sync signal and the registration of a single-photon event of reflected photons from a target. TCSPC is a statistic method that requires an acquisition time and therefore the range profile of a non-stationary object (target) may be corrupted. Here, we present results showing that it is possible to reconstruct the range profile of a moving target and calculate the velocity of the target.

The hot exhaust gases from engines on helicopters are pushed down by the rotor in a turbulent flow. When the optical path of a laser beam or optical sensor passes through this region severe aberrations of the optical field may result. These perturbations will lead to beam wander and beam distortions that can limit the performance of optical countermeasure systems. To quantify these effects the Italian Air Force Flight Test Centre hosted a trial for the “Airborne platform effects on lasers and warning sensors” (ALWS) EDA-project. Laser beams were propagated from the airport control tower to a target screen in a slant path with the helicopter hovering over this path. Collimated laser beams at 1.55-, 2- and 4.6-μm wavelength were imaged with high speed cameras. Large increases in beam wander and beam divergence were found, with beam wander up to 200 μrad root-mean-square and increases in beam divergence up to 1 mrad. To allow scaling to other laser beam parameters and geometries formulas for propagation in atmospheric turbulence were used even though the turbulence may not follow Kolmogorov statistics. By assuming that the plume is short compared to the total propagation distance the integrated structure parameter through the plume could be calculated. Values in the range 10 -10 to 10 -8 m 1/3 were found when the laser beams passed through the exhaust gases below the helicopter tail. The integrated structure parameter values calculated from beam wander were consistently lower than those calculated from long term spot size, indicating that the method is not perfect but provides information about order of magnitudes. The measured results show that the engine exhaust for worst case beam directions will dominate over atmospheric turbulence even for kilometer path lengths from a helicopter at low altitude. How severe the effect is on system performance will depend on beam and target parameters.

The performance of electro-optical platform protection systems can be degraded significantly by the propagation environment around the platform. This includes aero-optical effects and zones of severe turbulence generated by engine exhausts. For helicopters rotor tip vortices and engine exhaust gases that are pressed down by the rotor airflow form the so called downwash phenomena. The downwash is a source for perturbations. A wide range of spatial and temporal fluctuations in the refractive index of air can occur. The perturbations from the turbulent flow cause detrimental effects on energy delivery, angle of arrival fluctuations, jam-code transmission, tracking accuracy and imaging performance in general. Therefore the effects may especially have a severe impact on the performance of laser-based protection systems like directed infrared countermeasures (DIRCM). The chain from passive missile detection and warning to obtaining an optical break-lock by the use of an active laser system will be influenced. To anticipate the installed performance of an electro-optical defensive aids suite (DAS) for helicopter platforms it is necessary to develop models for the prediction of the perturbations. Modelled results have to be validated against experimental findings. However, the data available in open literature on the effects of rotor downwash from helicopters on optical propagation is very limited. To collect necessary data and to obtain a first impression about the magnitude of occurring effects the European defence agency group (EDA) on “airborne platform effects on lasers and warning sensors (ALWS)” decided to design and perform a field trial on the premises of the Italian Air Force Flight Test Center in Pratica di Mare, Italy. ALWS is a technical arrangement under the Europa MoU among France, Germany, Italy, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) is a laser radar technique that can provide range profiling with subcentimetre range resolution. The method relies on accurate time measurements between a laser pulse sync signal and the registration of a single-photon detection of photons reflected from an object. The measurement is performed multiple times and a histogram of arrival times is computed to gain information about surfaces at different distances within the field of view of the laser radar. TCSPC is a statistic method that requires an integration time and therefore the range profile of a non-stationary object (target) will be corrupted. However, by dividing the measurement into time intervals much shorter than the total acquisition time and cross correlating the histogram from each time interval it is possible calculate how the target has moved relative to the first time interval. The distance as a function of time was fitted to a polynomic function. This result was used to calculate a distance correction of every single detection event and the equivalent stationary histogram was reconstructed. Series of measurements on the objects with constant or non-linear velocities up to 0.5 m/s were performed and compared with stationary measurements. The results show that it is possible to reconstruct range profiles of moving objects with this technique. Reconstruction of the signal requires no prior information of the original range profile and the instantaneous and average velocities of the object can be calculated.

An optical parametric oscillator using a periodically poled LiNbO3 crystal and a volume Bragg grating output coupler is presented. Signal and idler wavelengths of 2008 and 2264 nm were generated fr ...

Phase modulating spatial light modulators (SLMs) can be used to alter the shape of a laser wavefront to achieve a deflection or change in the shape of a laser beam. This paper reports the results of characterization, simulation and optimization of a one-dimensional liquid crystal (LC) SLM. The device has a large ratio between LC layer thickness and pixel pitch that results in a fringing field between pixels. In effect, the applied phase patterns will be lowpass filtered and the loss of high frequency components limits, for instance, the usable steering range. A method is presented where intensity measurements in the far field are used to determine how the phase modulation at the SLM is distorted. The inhomogeneous optical anisotropy of the device was determined by modelling the liquid crystal director distribution within the electrode-pixel structure. Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations were used to calculate the light propagation through the LC. The simulated phase distortion was co...

In order to enhance 3D image data from magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), a novel method based on the theory of multidimensional adaptive filtering has been developed. The purpose of the technique is to suppress image noise while enhancing important structures. The method is based on local structure estimation using six 3D orientation selective filters, followed by an adaptive filtering step controlled by the local structure information. The complete filtering procedure requires approximately 3 minutes of computational time on a standard workstation for a 256 3 256 3 64 data set. The method has been evaluated using a mathematical vessel model and in vivo MRA data (both phase contrast and time of flight (TOF)). 3D adaptive filtering results in a better delineation of small blood vessels and efficiently reduces the high-frequency noise. Depending on the data acquisition and the original data type, contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) improvements of up to 179% (8.9 dB) were observed. 3D adaptive filtering may provide an alternative to prolonging the scan time or using contrast agents in MRA when the CNR is low. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2001;14:63‐71. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Snipers and other optically guided weapon systems are serious threats in military operations. We have studied a SWIR (Short Wave Infrared) camera-based system with capability to detect and locate snipers both before and after shot over a large field-of-view. The high frame rate SWIR-camera allows resolution of the temporal profile of muzzle flashes which is the infrared signature associated with the ejection of the bullet from the rifle. The capability to detect and discriminate sniper muzzle flashes with this system has been verified by FOI in earlier studies. In this work we have extended the system by adding a laser channel for optics detection. A laser diode with slit-shaped beam profile is scanned over the camera field-of-view to detect retro reflection from optical sights. The optics detection system has been tested at various distances up to 1.15 km showing the feasibility to detect rifle scopes in full daylight. The high speed camera gives the possibility to discriminate false alarms by analyzing the temporal data. The intensity variation, caused by atmospheric turbulence, enables discrimination of small sights from larger reflectors due to aperture averaging, although the targets only cover a single pixel. It is shown that optics detection can be integrated in combination with muzzle flash detection by adding a scanning rectangular laser slit. The overall optics detection capability by continuous surveillance of a relatively large field-of-view looks promising. This type of multifunctional system may become an important tool to detect snipers before and after shot.

We have investigated the possibilities of using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to characterize the impact of refractive index fluctuations in a jet engine plume on Directed InfraRed CounterMeasure (DIRCM) system performance. The jet plume was modelled using both Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and Large Eddy Simulation (LES) formulations of Navier-Stokes equations. The RANS calculations provided a time-averaged description of the refractive index and the turbulence strength. The more computationally intense LES model provided time resolved data on large scale turbulent eddies within the engine plume. The smaller structures are assumed to be isotropic and are modelled implicitly to reduce the computational demands to levels feasible for current computational hardware. The refractive index data from the CFD calculations was integrated along the optical propagation path to produce phase screens. For RANS data this approach provided time averaged aberrations, whereas for LES data the temporal variation of low spatial frequency aberrations were available for a short time sequence. Modal descriptions of the phase screens were investigated to allow study of temporal variation at longer time scales. Alternatively the structure parameter (Cn2) can be estimated and used to provide order of magnitude approximations for the optical effects. The generated phase screens were used to calculate laser beam system level quality parameters including beam wander, fidelity ratio and power-in-bucket. The paper focuses on method development, but examples of a jet plume simulation showing that the engine plume turbulence has a significant impact on DIRCM system functionality are presented.

Detection and localisation of optical assemblies used for weapon guidance or sniper rifle scopes has attracted interest for security and military applications. Typically a laser system is used to interrogate a scene of interest and the retro-reflected radiation is detected. Different system approaches for area coverage can be realised ranging from flood illumination to step-and-stare or continuous scanning schemes. Independently of the chosen approach target discrimination is a crucial issue, particularly if a complex scene such as in an urban environment and autonomous operation is considered. In this work target discrimination strategies in optics detection are discussed. Typical parameters affecting the reflected laser radiation from the target are the wavelength, polarisation properties, temporal effects and the range resolution. Knowledge about the target characteristics is important to predict the target discrimination capability. Two different systems were used to investigate polarisation properties and range resolution information from targets including e.g. road signs, optical reflexes, rifle sights and optical references. The experimental results and implications on target discrimination will be discussed. If autonomous operation is required target discrimination becomes critical in order to reduce the number of false alarms.

Tomographic signal processing is used to transform multiple one-dimensional range profiles of a target from different angles to a two-dimensional image of the object. The range profiles are measured by a time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) laser radar system with approximately 50 ps range resolution and a field of view that is wide compared to the measured objects. Measurements were performed in a lab environment with the targets mounted on a rotation stage. We show successful reconstruction of 2D-projections along the rotation axis of a boat model and removal of artefacts using a mask based on the convex hull. The independence of spatial resolution and the high sensitivity at a first glance makes this an interesting technology for very long range identification of passing objects such as high altitude UAVs and orbiting satellites but also the opposite problem of ship identification from high altitude platforms. To obtain an image with useful information measurements from a large angular sector around the object is needed, which is hard to obtain in practice. Examples of reconstructions using 90 and 150° sectors are given. In addition, the projection of the final image is along the rotation axis for the measurement and if this is not aligned with a major axis of the target the image information is limited. There are also practical problems to solve, for example that the distance from the sensor to the rotation centre needs to be known with an accuracy corresponding to the measurement resolution. The conclusion is that that laser radar tomography is useful only when the sensor is fixed and the target rotates around its own axis.

Detection of optical assemblies is important in revealing threats arising from snipers or other weapons guided by optical means. Several approaches can be imagined using flood illumination or scanning laser techniques. One challenging problem in optics detection applications in urban environments, particular if an autonomous approach is chosen, is to reduce the false alarm rate. In this work a dual channel approach for optics detection using a narrow scanning rectangular laser beam is described. One channel is used for locating targets in the vertical direction while a second channel simultaneously determines the distance to the targets. An experimental system consisting of two channels operating at 0.8 micrometer wavelength was used to study the characteristics of different targets such as road signs, optical reflexes, rifle sights, optical references and backgrounds at different ranges and in different environments. Schemes for refining the target discrimination, reducing the false alarm rate and improving the performance are discussed using experimental results. A dual channel approach is suggested to improve capabilities in optics detection using a scanning rectangular laser beam.

Photon counting techniques using direct detection has recently gained considerable interest within the laser radar community. The high sensitivity is of special importance to achieve high area coverage in surveillance and mapping applications and long range with compact systems for imaging, profiling and ranging. New short pulse lasers including the super continuum laser is of interest for active spectral imaging. A special technique in photon counting is the "time correlated single photon counting" (TCSPC). This can be utilized together with short pulse (ps) lasers to achieve very high range resolution and accuracy (mm level). Low average power lasers in the mW range enables covert operation with respect to present laser warning technology. By analyzing the return waveform range and shape information from the target can be extracted. By scanning the beam high resolution 3D images are obtained. At FOI we have studied the TCSPC with respect to range profiling and imaging. Limitations due to low SNR and dwell times are studied in conjunction with varying daylight background and atmospheric turbulence. Examples of measurements will be presented and discussed with respect to some system applications.

A time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) laser radar system can be used for range profiling of objects with high time resolution and dynamic range. A system setup is described and daytime outdoor measurements over distances up to 1 km are presented. The system has 114 ps full width half maximum system response, indicating a Rayleigh criterion resolution of two surfaces separated by 17 mm and much better with more advanced signal processing methods. The high dynamic range and time resolution allows measurement of distances between different optical surfaces in objects such as optical sights. The system thus has a potential use to classify objects and remove false alarms in an optics detection system. Effects of atmospheric turbulence and background radiation in daytime conditions are analyzed. A method for determining the scintillation index in noisy data using the temporal autocorrelation is described. System performance calculations based on measured data indicate that the performance necessary to detect characteristic features of optical sights and other retroreflecting objects may be found in reasonable dwell times well below 100 ms.

Atmospheric turbulence effects close to ground may affect the performance of laser based systems severely. The variations in the refractive index along the propagation path cause effects such as beam wander, intensity fluctuations (scintillations) and beam broadening. Typical geometries of interest for optics detection include nearly horizontal propagation paths close to the ground and up to kilometre distance to the target. The scintillations and beam wander affect the performance in terms of detection probability and false alarm rate. Of interest is to study the influence of turbulence in optics detection applications. In a field trial atmospheric turbulence effects along a 1 kilometre horizontal propagation path were studied using a diode laser with a rectangular beam profile operating at 0.8 micrometer wavelength. Single-path beam characteristics were registered and analysed using photodetectors arranged in horizontal and vertical directions. The turbulence strength along the path was determined using a scintillometer and single-point ultrasonic anemometers. Strong scintillation effects were observed as a function of the turbulence strength and amplitude characteristics were fitted to model distributions. In addition to the single-path analysis double-path measurements were carried out on different targets. Experimental results are compared with existing theoretical turbulence laser beam propagation models. The results show that influence from scintillations needs to be considered when predicting performance in optics detection applications.

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) and electron spin echo, (ESE) spectroscopy have been used to characterise radical cations of benzene (benzene-d6 and benzene-d1), generated by ionising radiation, and stabilised on silica gel and HY molecular sieve surfaces. The electronic structure and dynamic features of the benzene cation were found to be different from those in the case of stabilisation in a Freon matrix (CFCl3). The monomeric cation was found to undergo pseudorotation at 3.5 K with hyperfine structure (h.f.s.) constants due to six averaged hydrogen nuclei. Simulations of the time-domain deuterium electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEM) (C6D+6 cation) gave the following h.f.s. constants: the perpendicular component of the axially symmetric tensor T⊥ = −0.8 MHz, and the isotropic component a = 2.17 MHz, consistent with ENDOR results at 105 K. It was concluded that the monodeuterated benzene cation ‘slowed down’ the rotation at 3.5 K, although not enough to allow an analysis in the rigid limit. ENDOR spectra of the protonated and deuterated monomeric and dimeric benzene radical cations on silica gel and HY molecular sieve surfaces are presented. On HY molecular sieve the ENDOR results revealed two types of dimer, one stabilised at low temperature (below 110 K) characterised by h.f.s. constants of 4.8 and 8.9 MHz, and the other stabilised at higher temperatures with an h.f.s. constant of 6.5 MHz. Only the latter type of dimer could be detected on silica gel. In addition to hyperfine splittings from ring protons, a smaller hyperfine splitting attributed to hydroxyl protons situated on the surface was determined from the ENDOR results.

The geometric and electronic structure of the cyclopentane radical cation has been investigated, employing semiempirical (MNDO and INDO) calculations, as well as ab initio unrestricted Hartree—Fock (UHF), Moller—Plesset perturbation theory (MP2 to MP4) and configuration interaction (SDCI) methods. The intramolecular motion of C 5 H + 10 is discussed in terms of isodynamic groups. The present analysis shows that previous interpretations of the electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra of C 5 H + 10 must be reconsidered. Rather than an antisymmetric (A″) state in C s symmetry, as previously assumed, the calculations unequivocally show the ground state to be totally symmetric ( 2 A′ in C s or 2 A in C 2 symmetry), with the latter assignment being favoured by dynamical considerations especially in the fast-motion limit.

The exhaust from jet engines introduces extreme turbulence levels in local environments around aircrafts. This may degrade the performance of electro-optical missile warning and laser-based DIRCM systems used to protect aircrafts against heat-seeking missiles. Full scale trials using real engines are expensive and difficult to perform motivating numerical simulations of the turbulence properties within the jet engine exhaust. Large Eddy Simulations (LES) is a computational fluid dynamics method that can be used to calculate spatial and temporal refractive index dynamics of the turbulent flow in the engine exhaust. From LES simulations the instantaneous refractive index in each grid point can be derived and interpolated to phase screens for numerical laser beam propagation or used to estimate aberration effects from optical path differences. The high computation load of LES limits the available data in terms of the computational volume and number of time steps. In addition the phase screen method used in laser beam propagation may also be too slow. For this reason extraction of statistical parameters from the turbulence field and statistical beam propagation methods are studied. The temporal variation of the refractive index is used to define a spatially varying structure constant. Ray-tracing through the mean refractive index field provides integrated static aberrations and the path integrated structure constant. These parameters can be used in classical statistical parameterised models describing propagation through turbulence. One disadvantage of using the structure constant description is that the temporal information is lost. Methods for studying the variation of optical aberrations based on models of Zernike coefficients are discussed. The results of the propagation calculations using the different methods are compared to each other and to available experimental data. Advantages and disadvantages of the different methods are briefly discussed.

The exhaust from engines introduces zones of extreme turbulence levels in local environments around aircraft. This may disturb the performance of aircraft mounted optical and laser systems. The turbulence distortion will be especially devastating for optical missile warning and laser based DIRCM systems used to protect manoeuvring aircraft against missile attacks, situations where the optical propagation path may come close to the engine exhaust. To study the extent of the turbulence zones caused by the engine exhaust and the strength of the effects on optical propagation through these zones a joint trial between Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom was performed using a medium sized military turboprop transport aircraft tethered to the ground at an airfield. This follows on earlier trials performed on a down-scaled jet-engine test rig. Laser beams were propagated along the axis of the aircraft at different distances relative to the engine exhaust and the spatial beam profiles and intensity scintillations were recorded with cameras and photodiodes. A second laser beam path was directed from underneath the loading ramp diagonally past one of the engines. The laser wavelengths used were 1.5 and 3.6 μm. In addition to spatial beam profile distortions temporal effects were investigated. Measurements were performed at different propeller speeds and at different distances from exhaust nozzle to the laser path. Significant increases in laser beam wander and long term beam radius were observed with the engine running. Corresponding increases were also registered in the scintillation index and the temporal fluctuations of the instantaneous power collected by the detector.

Resonant output energy enhancement in a singly resonant nondegenerate type-I optical parametric oscillator with a volume Bragg grating output coupler is demonstrated. The resonances occur when the pump laser and parametric oscillator cavity length ratio is an integer or a fraction of small integers. Although the length resonances are similar to those observed in doubly resonant optical parametric oscillators, the physical mechanism is distinctly different. The resonances in the singly resonant oscillator are caused by correlation of the instantaneous power between the quasi-periodic multimode pump laser beam and the OPO signal.

The local environment of Ti3+ cations in methanol solutions and in Nafion perfluorinated ionomers swollen by water and methanol has been studied by electron spin resonance (ESR) and by 1H and 2H electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopies. The two major sites reflecting the ligation of the cations as a function of solvent structure and cation concentration have been analyzed, using whenever possible the method of orientation selection for the ENDOR transitions. The distance RN of the protons from the central cation, and the angle ΘN between the symmetry axis of Ti3+ and the Ti3+ -proton vector have been deduced by evaluating the dipolar interaction tensor and by simulating the orientation dependence of the ENDOR signal. For site 1 of Ti3+ in methanol (g॥ = 1.986 and g⊥ = 1.894) no orientation selection was possible, and RN values in the range 4.1 to 4.6 Å are suggested from the ENDOR splittings. For site 2 of Ti3+ in methanol (g॥ = 1.943 and g⊥ = 1.960) equatorial and axial methyl protons have been detected; the RN values deduced from the simulations are 3.95 and 4.35 Å, respectively. For Ti3+ in Nafion swollen by water (g || = 1.997 and g⊥ = 1.907), equatorial and axial protons from OH groups have been detected, and the ENDOR spectra were simulated with RN values of 2.60 and 3.10 Å respectively for these protons

Electronic and geometric structure of the 1-methylsilacyclohexane (1-Me-cSiC5) radical cation in a solid perfluoromethylcy-clohexane matrix at low temperature were used studied by ESR spectroscopy with the aid of three selectively deuteriated 1-methyl-silacyclohexanes, 1-Me-cSiC5-2,2- d 2 , 1-Me-cSiC5-2,2,6,6- d 4 , and 1-Me- d 3 -cSiC5. The radical cation was found to have an asymmetrically distorted geometrical structure with one of the SiC bonds elongated with its electronic ground state proposed to be 2 A in C 1 symmetry. This conclusion was derived from an analysis of the temperature -dependent ESR spectra employing a dynamic model of interconversion between two energetically equivalent distorted mirror image structures.

Piperidine forms small aggregates in most Freon matrices at cryogenic temperatures; upon X-irradiation, hydrogen–proton transfer between piperidine radical cations and piperidine molecules occurs.

Optical measurements and tests of optical instruments are often performed through an opened window or from the roof of an elevated building. This can also be a common situation for free-space optical (FSO) communication systems. Wind friction in combination with solar heating of the wall and the ground will create increased turbulence in a boundary layer close to the wall. For an outgoing laser beam this thin region of strong turbulence causes beam wander, beam broadening and beam break-up. For imaging and detection systems angle of arrival fluctuations and image blurring may result. In an attempt to estimate the strength of the atmospheric turbulence in the layer at the wall the refractive index structure constant ( C n 2 ) was measured with an ultra sonic anemometer as a function of distance from the wall. The measurements were performed at the lower part of a window that was open just enough to give space for the anemometer. The window was placed 10 m above ground in a 12 m high building, with brick wall below the window and wooden panel above the window. Measurements of the turbulence as a function of distance from the wall were performed during different times of the day to study the influence of sun heating of the wall. The measured average C n 2 shows an exponentially decreasing function of distance from the wall. The exponential decay of C n 2 depends on the time of the day. The highest measured value of C n 2 was approximately 3x10 -11 m -2/3 near the wall. The influence of wall turbulence is discussed with respect to its influence on laser beam propagation.

Spectral requirements for the first stage OPO used to pump a tandem ZGP mid-infrared OPO are theoretically investigated. Based on these requirements we demonstrate a singly-resonant type-I OPO including periodically poled KTiOPO4 and volume-Bragg gratings as output couplers. Singly resonant oscillation is demonstrated very close to degeneracy, where signal and idler spectra are not well separated. Investigations of the longitudinal mode spectrum and the idler spectrum with high resolution using a scanning Fabry-Perot interferometer show the essential role played by the phase correlations of the multi-longitudinal mode Q-switched pump laser in formation of the nonresonant idler spectrum. QC 100517

The electronic structures of the azetidine radical cation and the neutral azetidin-1-yl radical have been investigated by EPR spectroscopy and theoretical ab initio UHF, MP2 and SDCl calculations. The radical cation was assigned a structure with a planar ring according to the theoretical and experimental results. Ab initio UHF calculations predicted the neutral azetidin-1-yl radical to have a puckered ring structure, with puckering angles 12.0 and 15.4° on the STO-3G and 6-31G* levels, respectively. This result was supported by the observed nonequivalent values of the experimental β-proton hyperfine coupling constants, suggesting that the neutral radical has a puckered structure at low temperature in a solid halocarbon matrix. Calculated SDCl values for the isotropic and anisotropic hyperfine coupling constants of the azetidine cation and the azetidin-1-yl radical were found to be in qualitative agreement with the experimental data.

Laser beam propagation through adverse turbulent environments such as the region close to a jet engine exhaust need to be studied in order to predict performance degradations on airborne laser systems. The turbulent plume region may introduce severe perturbations which accumulate and cause beam degradation in terms of beam wander, intensity scintillations and beam broadening at longer ranges. Applications of interest with respect to laser beam propagation in jet engine plume environments include e.g. directed infrared countermeasures (DIRCM) and active imaging. By characterising and evaluating the perturbation effects schemes for compensation or avoiding performance degradation can be devised. The turbulence effects in the plume region occur by mixing of hot exhaust flow from the jet engine with surrounding ambient air causing spatial and temporal fluctuations in the refractive index. In comparison to atmospheric turbulence considerably shorter outer- and inner scales have been observed. Typical values of the structure constant within the plume region range from 10-10 to 10-9 m-2/3 making the turbulence several order in magnitude stronger in contrast to propagation through the atmosphere. Of importance in characterisation of the jet engine plume with respect to laser beam propagation are turbulent length scales, the extent of the turbid region, variation of the structure constant and temporal flow properties. In this paper reported experimental results and modelling approaches aimed for predicting laser beam propagation degradation in jet engine plume regions are reviewed. The results will be discussed in perspective of system performance.

Efficient laser sources in the 3 - 5 μm wavelength range are needed for directed infrared countermeasures, but also have applications in remote-sensing, medicine and spectroscopy. We present new results on our tandem optical parametric oscillator (OPO) scheme for converting the radiation from a 1.06 μm Nd3+-laser to the mid-infrared. Multi Watt level output power in the 3-5 μm range at 20 kHz pulse repetition frequency is reported. Our setup uses a type I quasi phase-matched PPKTP crystal in a near degenerate OPO to generate 2.13 μm radiation. A volume Bragg grating resonant close to, but not exactly at the degenerate wavelength, is used as a cavity mirror to reduce the bandwidth and ensure singly resonant operation. Both signal and idler from the PPKTP OPO are used to pump a ZGP OPO generating high power radiation in the 3-5 μm region. Using this scheme for each pump photon it is possible to generate four photons for each pump photon, all in the interesting wavelength range, thus enabling high efficiency conversion.

Airplane based laser systems for DIRCM, active imaging and communication are important applications attracting considerable interest. The performance of these systems in directions where the laser beam points close to or through the exhaust plume from the jet engines may be severely reduced. A trial to study these phenomena using a downscaled jet-engine test rig was carried out. The results on propagation of laser beams along and across the plume from these trials are presented. For laser beams propagation along the engine axis an OPO based source producing co-propagating laser beams at 1.52 and 3.56 μm was used. The beams were projected on a screen and imaged with separate IR cameras to study beam wander and spot degradation. Propagation across the plume was studied with a 532 nm laser projected on a screen and imaged by a high speed camera. The engine thrust and the distance between the engine nozzle and the laser beams were varied to study the effects of changing conditions. Scaling to full size engines and performance implications for DIRCM is discussed.

Range profiling with high resolution and accuracy can be accomplished using single-photon counting time-of-flight techniques. Detection of target surfaces with high resolution is of importance for several remote sensing applications. The use of laser pulses in the picosecond regime, single-photon avalanche photodiodes and acquisition electronics with high timing resolution provides the tools for improving the range accuracy. This paper gives examples of measured surface profiles and compares the results with simplified theoretical models. The results are discussed with respect to some applications.

The ESR spectra of radical cations of cis- and trans-decalin have been recorded in different halocarbon matrices within the temperature range 4.2 to 130 K. The ground-state structures of both isomers have been calculated using the UHF/MNDO technique and found to be 2 A g or 2 B g for trans-decalin + and 2 A 1 or 2 B 1 for cis-decalin + , respectively. Calculated hyperfine splittings were found to be in good agreement with experiments. In contrast to cis-decalin + where only the 2 A 1 state was observed in the experiments, the electronic ground state of trans-decalin + has been shown to depend on the matrix and to be either 2 A g or 2 B g . In the perfluoromethylcyclohexane and CF 2 ClCFCl 2 matrices both these states of trans-decalin + were observed at 4.2 K. The ESR spectrum of trans-decalin + observed in these matrices at 77 K corresponds to a rapid exchange between the 2 A g and 2 B g states.

The dynamics of the methylcyclohexane and 1,1-dimethylcyclohexane radical cations in a solid perfluoromethylcyclohexane matrix at low temperature have been studied by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. The reversible variations of the experimental EPR linewidth, observed for both cations in the temperature region 4–173 K, have been reproduced through simulations employing a dynamical model for the molecular motion. It was assumed that an interconversion between two energetically equivalent mirror images of the molecular framework occurred. The related activation energy has been determined to be 0.2 and 0.3 kcal mol–1 for the methylcyclohexane and 1,1-dimethycyclohexane radical cations, respectively.

Efficient laser sources in the 3 - 5 μm wavelength range are needed for directed infrared countermeasures, but also have applications in remote sensing, medicine and spectroscopy. We present result ...

Optical range profiling with high resolution can be accomplished using single-photon counting time-of-flight techniques. Detection of optical surfaces with high resolution is of importance for several remote sensing applications. The use of laser pulses in the picosecond regime, single-photon detectors and acquisition electronics with high timing resolution provides the tools for improving the range accuracy. In this work a system based on time-of-flight range profiling using time-correlated single-photon counting techniques is described. The system is intended to be used for optical range profiling in field experiments. Experimental results from measurements on test targets are presented. Schemes for extraction of range information from the experimental temporal profile and results from performance modelling are briefly discussed.

An optical communication link with a modulated retro-reflector in a cat's eye optics arrangement has been evaluated. A transmissive multiple quantum well modulator with a modulation bandwidth in excess of 10 MHz was placed in a wide field-of-view cat's eye optic system. A laser transceiver with one line and one broadband source around 1550 nm was used to interrogate the modulated retro-reflector and detect the reflected and modulated signal. Multi-level digital encoding was evaluated as a way to increase the information transfer rate in conditions with relatively high signal-to-noise ratio. The links were evaluated in indoor as well as outdoor conditions.

In certain directed infrared countermeasure (DIRCM) situations, the laser beam path may have to pass close to the engine exhaust plume of the aircraft and models of plume turbulence are needed for DIRCM performance simulations. The jet engine plume was modeled using large eddy simulation (LES), providing time resolved information about the large scale turbulent eddies. The refractive index data from the LES calculations were integrated along the propagation path to produce time resolved phase screens for optical beam propagation. The phase screens were used to calculate laser beam parameters including beam wander and power-in-bucket (PIB). Numerical beam propagation resulted in a root-mean-square beam wander of 200 μ rad for the small turbojet engine studied. The PIB was calculated for beams with 80 μ rad and 2 mrad divergence having equal beam diameter when passing through the plume. For the beam with low divergence, the average PIB was reduced from 0.23 to 0.040, while the beam with wider divergence showed no significant reduction. In both cases, the plume introduced significant temporal variation of the instantaneous PIB. The beam wander is not affected by the divergence, but only depends on beam size.

Atmospheric turbulence can significantly degrade the performance of free-space optical communication links. Beam wander, intensity scintillations, beam broadening and angle of arrival fluctuations give rise to signal fading with communication channel drop-outs. In this work the performance of the potentially beneficial combination of a retro reflective link operating at 1535 nm in conjunction with a single-photon quantum key distribution link at 850 nm was studied. The general idea is that the weak light beam of the quantum channel can be steered and controlled by the 1535 nm signal. A dual-channel laser unit, with output beams at 850 and 1535 nm, was used to characterise turbulence effects along an atmospheric path close above ground. The laser beams were retro reflected from a corner cube and detected in the same laser unit. The 1535 nm beam was monitored with a position sensitive detector while the 850 nm beam (low intensity channel) was aligned with the 1535 nm beam and detected separately but along the same optical axis of the laser unit. Effects of beam wander, angular fluctuations and intensity scintillations were studied experimentally at different turbulence strengths and weather conditions. The experimental results are discussed with respect to theoretical models.

An increasing interest in lasers placed on aircrafts for active countermeasures and active imaging is observed. There remain unsolved issues regarding the propagation effects close to the jet engine exhaust and the possibilities of compensating them with adaptive optics. Laser beam propagation experiments parallel to the exhaust of a downscaled jet engine test rig have been performed. The experiments were carried out with nanosecond laser pulses at 1.6 and 3.5 μm wavelength. The laser spots were projected on a screen and the centroid motion were imaged by cameras. Root mean square magnitudes of the beam wander between 50 and 150 μrad were observed for different engine conditions and geometries. The 3.5 μm system had a frame rate of 607 Hz and could partly resolve the time variation of the beam wander. A correlation time (50 %) of 3.5 ms was observed for the beam wander. Deflections of several hundred μrad due to the average gradients in temperature and pressure were also found when the engine was turned on. In addition to beam wander intensity scintillations has been studied.

Atmospheric propagation experiments for active and passive EO systems were performed over a 2 and 8 km path. Single and double path propagation effects were studied using retroreflectors and hot point targets. The systems used include laser systems at 1.5 and 3.5 μm wavelength as well as imaging systems in the visible, 1-2 and 8-9 μm regions. A scintillometer operating at 0.8 μm wavelength was also used for the shorter path. Experimental data will be presented and evaluated concerning statistics. The results will be discussed mainly from a laser countermeasure point of view.

Atmospheric propagation degradation effects including attenuation, aerosol scattering and turbulence have a great impact on the performance of optical systems. Relevant military optical systems include active and passive imaging for target recognition, free-space optical communication and DIRCM/EOCM. This paper will report on experimental work including measurement of retro signals at 1.5 and in the 3-5 μm wavelength regions for evaluation of retro communication links and DIRCM performance. Imaging experiments using a range-gated system both in the active and passive mode at 1.5 μm, will also be carried along the same paths. A dedicated target box and test targets have been fabricated for mounting on a mast at 8 km from our laboratory. The box contains reflectors and receivers in different slots each of which can be opened by a telephone call. A heated target on top simulates a point target in the IR region. The test targets are aimed for the range-gated imaging system. Preliminary experimental data will be presented and discussed.

Retro-reflective optical communication was investigated in field trials set up in urban and maritime environments. A 1550 nm laser transceiver with an output power ranging from 1 mW to 2 W and liquid crystal polarisation modulators in conjunction with corner cube reflectors were used in different experimental arrangements. The emphasis in this work was on system performance issues in tactical application such as the effects of platform vibrations and beam distortion induced by the atmospheric turbulence. In particular, the conditions for counteraction of communication interrupts, caused by line of sight jitter, using a dynamic tip-tilt mirror in the laser transceiver were tested. We report on the results from field trials wherein these issues have been addressed.