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IntroductionPavlovian fear conditioning is an experimental paradigm used to study the acquisition and extinction of fear responses and the various aspects of fear and anxiety. We developed a virtual reality (VR) version of this paradigm to leverage the benefits of virtual reality, such as ecological validity, standardization, safety, and therapeutic applications. Our objective was to create an open-source and immersive environment for studying fear-related responses using Unity Engine 3D and the Oculus Rift device.MethodsIn this virtual environment, the participants encountered a monster screaming at 100 dB approaching them as the fear-inducing stimulus (unconditioned stimulus or US). Our protocol included three sessions: habituation, acquisition, and extinction, with two stimuli associated with different doors (blue vs. red). The blue door (CS+) was linked to the US, while the red door (CS−) was the control. We tested this VR paradigm on 84 young participants, recording their skin conductance response (SCRs) and fear stimulus ratings (FSRs) on a 10-point Likert scale.ResultsThe findings showed significantly higher SCRs and FSRs for CS+ as compared to CS− during the acquisition phase and higher SCRs and FSRs for CS+ during the acquisition phase as compared to the habituation and extinction sessions.Discussion and conclusionsThese results supported the reliability of the protocol for studying fear and anxiety-related conditions.

IntroductionEmpathy can be described as the ability to adopt another person’s perspective and comprehend, feel, share, and respond to their emotional experiences. Empathy plays an important role in these relationships and is constructed in human–robot interaction (HRI). This systematic review focuses on studies investigating human empathy toward robots. We intend to define empathy as the cognitive capacity of humans to perceive robots as equipped with emotional and psychological states.MethodsWe conducted a systematic search of peer-reviewed articles using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. We searched Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases. All articles were reviewed based on the titles, abstracts, and full texts by two investigators (EM and CS) who independently performed data collection. The researchers read the full-text articles deemed suitable for the study, and in cases of disagreement regarding the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the final decision was made by a third researcher (VLB).ResultsThe electronic search identified 484 articles. After reading the full texts of the selected publications and applying the predefined inclusion criteria, we selected 11 articles that met our inclusion criteria. Robots that could identify and respond appropriately to the emotional states of humans seemed to evoke empathy. In addition, empathy tended to grow more when the robots exhibited anthropomorphic traits.DiscussionHumanoid robots can be programmed to understand and react to human emotions and simulate empathetic responses; however, they are not endowed with the same innate capacity for empathy as humans.

Prism adaptation (PA) is a sensorimotor technique that has been shown to alleviate neglect symptoms. Due to its demonstrated functional effectiveness, PA has recently been implemented in virtual reality environments. However, research on virtual prism adaptation (VPA) is limited and it lacks a standardized methodological approach. It is crucial to investigate whether VPA can be effective in inducing traditional effect of PA and to have potential utility in a rehabilitation context. Clarifying this aspect would allow the use of VPA in a wider range of contexts and neurological disorders, with the additional opportunity to overcome PA traditional limits. The aim of the present study is to revise current literature on VPA in both healthy individuals and patients highlighting also its advantages and limitations. Studies performed between 2013 and 2023 and fulfilling the inclusion criteria were searched on three electronic databases, by combining the terms “Virtual prism adaptation” and “Virtual prism adaptation therapy. Out of 123 articles, only 16 met the inclusion criteria. The current literature review suggests that VPA may serve as a potentially useful tool for inducing visuomotor adaptation, with most studies conducted in healthy individuals. The high variability in the methodologies observed among studies suggests that more standardized approaches are needed to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying adaptation and aftereffects when PA is administered in a virtual environment. Future studies should also address practical applications and clinical efficacy of VPA, particularly in patients with spatial neglect.

Background: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological disease that affects the Central Nervous System by causing demyelination. Social cognition (SC) deficits are common among individuals with MS and can significantly impact their quality of life (QoL) due to difficulties in interpreting social cues and establishing meaningful relationships. Objective: This scoping review aimed to investigate SC in subjects with MS and its impact on QoL. Methods: Systematic searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science databases. After reading the full text of the selected studies and applying predefined inclusion criteria, four studies were included based on pertinence and relevance to the topic. Results: The findings highlight significant associations between SC deficits, social support, fatigue, and QoL outcomes. Cognitive decline was identified as a predictive factor for SC impairment in the MS population, which affects daily activities and relationships, thereby reducing QoL. Moreover, emotional impairments such as depression and anxiety exacerbate these challenges. Enhancing social support networks may improve psychological well-being and disease management in MS. Conclusions: Although evidence is limited, assessing SC is crucial in the care pathways for MS to develop tailored psychosocial interventions that address the cognitive, emotional, and social facets of the disease, thereby improving overall outcomes and QoL.

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET), particularly immersive Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (iVRET), has gained attraction as an innovative approach in exposure therapy (ET), notably for some anxiety disorders with a fear of contamination component, such as spider phobia (SP) and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). This systematic work investigates iVRET’s effectiveness in modulating disgust emotion—a shared aberrant feature across these disorders. Recent reviews have evaluated VRET’s efficacy against in vivo ET. However, emerging evidence also highlights iVRET’s potential in diminishing atypical disgust and related avoidance behaviors, expanding beyond traditional fear-focused outcomes. Our systematic synthesis, adhering to PRISMA guidelines, aims to fill this gap by assessing iVRET’s efficacy in regulating disgust emotion within both clinical and at-risk populations, identified through standardized questionnaires and subjective disgust ratings. This research analyzes data from eight studies on clinical populations and five on healthy populations, offering an insight into iVRET’s potential to mitigate the aberrant disgust response, a common transdiagnostic feature in varied psychopathologies. The findings support iVRET’s clinical relevance in disgust management, providing evidence for a broader therapeutic application of iVRET and pointing out the need for more focused and complete investigations in this emergent field.

Alexithymia, characterized by difficulty in recognizing and verbalizing emotions, is reported to be more prevalent in subjects with Parkinson’s disease (PD) than in the general population. Although it is one of the nonmotor symptoms of PD, alexithymia is often overlooked in clinical practice. The aim of this systematic review is to investigate the prevalence of alexithymia in PD, assess its impact on quality of life, and explore the rehabilitation approaches for alexithymia. Research articles, selected from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, were limited to those published in English from 2013 to 2023. The search terms combined were “Alexithymia,” “Parkinson’s disease,”, and “Quality of life.” Current literature review indicates that alexithymia is commonly assessed using the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), and it is associated with deficits in visuospatial and executive functions. Presently, rehabilitation interventions for alexithymia are scarce, and their effectiveness remains controversial. Future research should focus on developing comprehensive assessments and rehabilitation strategies for emotional processing, considering its significant impact on the quality of life of both patients and caregivers.