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Madagascar’s biota is hyperdiverse and includes exceptional levels of endemicity. We review the current state of knowledge on Madagascar’s past and current terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity by compiling and presenting comprehensive data on species diversity, endemism, and rates of species description and human uses, in addition to presenting an updated and simplified map of vegetation types. We report a substantial increase of records and species new to science in recent years; however, the diversity and evolution of many groups remain practically unknown (e.g., fungi and most invertebrates). Digitization efforts are increasing the resolution of species richness patterns and we highlight the crucial role of field- and collections-based research for advancing biodiversity knowledge and identifying gaps in our understanding, particularly as species richness corresponds closely to collection effort. Phylogenetic diversity patterns mirror that of species richness and endemism in most of the analyzed groups. We highlight humid forests as centers of diversity and endemism because of their role as refugia and centers of recent and rapid radiations. However, the distinct endemism of other areas, such as the grassland-woodland mosaic of the Central Highlands and the spiny forest of the southwest, is also biologically important despite lower species richness. The documented uses of Malagasy biodiversity are manifold, with much potential for the uncovering of new useful traits for food, medicine, and climate mitigation. The data presented here showcase Madagascar as a unique “living laboratory” for our understanding of evolution and the complex interactions between people and nature. The gathering and analysis of biodiversity data must continue and accelerate if we are to fully understand and safeguard this unique subset of Earth’s biodiversity.

Societal Impact Statement We rely on plants and fungi for most aspects of our lives. Yet plants and fungi are under threat, and we risk losing species before we know their identity, roles, and potential uses. Knowing names, distributions, and threats are first steps toward effective conservation action. Accessible products like field guides and online resources engage society, harnessing collective support for conservation. Here, we review current knowledge of the plants and fungi of the UK and UK Overseas Territories, highlighting gaps to help direct future research efforts toward conserving these vital elements of biodiversity. Summary This review summarizes current knowledge of the status and threats to the plants and fungi of Great Britain and the UK Overseas Territories (UKOTs). Although the body of knowledge is considerable, the distribution of information varies substantially, and we highlight knowledge gaps. The UK vascular flora is the most well studied and we have a relatively clear picture of its 9,001 native and alien taxa. We have seedbanked 72% of the native and archaeophyte angiosperm taxa and 78% of threatened taxa. Knowledge of the UKOTs flora varies across territories and we report a UKOTs flora comprising 4,093 native and alien taxa. We have conserved 27% of the native flora and 51% of the threatened vascular plants in Kew's Millennium Seed Bank, UK. We need a better understanding of the conservation status of plants in the wild, and progress toward completion or updating national red lists varies. Site‐based protection of key plant assemblages is outlined, and progress in identifying Important Plant Areas analyzed. Knowledge of the non‐vascular flora, especially seaweeds remains patchy, particularly in many UKOTs. The biggest gaps overall are in fungi, particularly non‐lichenized fungi. Considerable investment is needed to fill these knowledge gaps and instigate effective conservation strategies.

Exchange of duplicate specimens was an important element of the relationship between metropolitan and regional museums in the period 1870–1940. Evidence of transfers of botanical museum objects such as economic botany specimens is explored for the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and six museums outside the capital: Cambridge University Botanical Museum, National Museum Wales, Glasgow Museums, Liverpool World Museum, Manchester Museum and Warrington Museum. Botany became an important element in these museums soon after their foundation, sometimes relying heavily on Kew material as in the case of Glasgow and Warrington, and usually with a strong element of economic botany (except in the case of Cambridge). Patterns of exchange depended on personal connections and rarely took the form of symmetrical relationships. Botanical displays declined in importance at various points between the 1920s and 1960s, and today only Warrington Museum has a botanical gallery open to the public. However, botanical objects are finding new roles in displays on subjects such as local history, history of collections, natural history and migration.

Madagascar is home to 208 indigenous palm species, almost all of them endemic and >80% of which are endangered. We undertook complete population census and sampling for genetic analysis of a relatively recently discovered giant fan palm, the Critically Endangered Tahina spectablis in 2008 and 2016. Our 2016 study included newly discovered populations and added to our genetic study. We incorporated these new populations into species distribution niche model (SDM) and projected these onto maps of the region. We developed population matrix models based on observed demographic data to model population change and predict the species vulnerability to extinction by undertaking population viability analysis (PVA). We investigated the potential conservation value of reintroduced planted populations within the species potential suitable habitat. We found that the population studied in 2008 had grown in size due to seedling regeneration but had declined in the number of reproductively mature plants, and we were able to estimate that the species reproduces and dies after approximately 70 years. Our models suggest that if the habitat where it resides continues to be protected the species is unlikely to go extinct due to inherent population decline and that it will likely experience significant population growth after approximately 80 years due to the reproductive and life cycle attributes of the species. The newly discovered populations contain more genetic diversity than the first discovered southern population which is genetically depauperate. The species appears to demonstrate a pattern of dispersal leading to isolated founder plants which may eventually lead to population development depending on local establishment opportunities. The conservation efforts currently put in place including the reintroduction of plants within the species potential suitable habitat if maintained are thought likely to enable the species to sustain itself but it remains vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts., We studied the genetics, population ecology and suitable habitat for Tahina spectabilis a critically endangered palm from Madagascar to assess its long term viability. We found that current conservation measures may enable the species to persist. Its endangerment is not due to intrinsic population decline.

Madagascar’s unique biota is heavily affected by human activity and is under intense threat. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the conservation status of Madagascar’s terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity by presenting data and analyses on documented and predicted species-level conservation statuses, the most prevalent and relevant threats, ex situ collections and programs, and the coverage and comprehensiveness of protected areas. The existing terrestrial protected area network in Madagascar covers 10.4% of its land area and includes at least part of the range of the majority of described native species of vertebrates with known distributions (97.1% of freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals combined) and plants (67.7%). The overall figures are higher for threatened species (97.7% of threatened vertebrates and 79.6% of threatened plants occurring within at least one protected area). International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments and Bayesian neural network analyses for plants identify overexploitation of biological resources and unsustainable agriculture as the most prominent threats to biodiversity. We highlight five opportunities for action at multiple levels to ensure that conservation and ecological restoration objectives, programs, and activities take account of complex underlying and interacting factors and produce tangible benefits for the biodiversity and people of Madagascar.

The Antarctic is considered to be a pristine environment relative to other regions of the Earth, but it is increasingly vulnerable to invasions by marine, freshwater and terrestrial non‐native species. The Antarctic Peninsula region (APR), which encompasses the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands and South Orkney Islands, is by far the most invaded part of the Antarctica continent. The risk of introduction of invasive non‐native species to the APR is likely to increase with predicted increases in the intensity, diversity and distribution of human activities. Parties that are signatories to the Antarctic Treaty have called for regional assessments of non‐native species risk. In response, taxonomic and Antarctic experts undertook a horizon scanning exercise using expert opinion and consensus approaches to identify the species that are likely to present the highest risk to biodiversity and ecosystems within the APR over the next 10 years. One hundred and three species, currently absent in the APR, were identified as relevant for review, with 13 species identified as presenting a high risk of invading the APR. Marine invertebrates dominated the list of highest risk species, with flowering plants and terrestrial invertebrates also represented; however, vertebrate species were thought unlikely to establish in the APR within the 10 year timeframe. We recommend (a) the further development and application of biosecurity measures by all stakeholders active in the APR, including surveillance for species such as those identified during this horizon scanning exercise, and (b) use of this methodology across the other regions of Antarctica. Without the application of appropriate biosecurity measures, rates of introductions and invasions within the APR are likely to increase, resulting in negative consequences for the biodiversity of the whole continent, as introduced species establish and spread further due to climate change and increasing human activity., The Antarctic Peninsula region (APR) is increasingly vulnerable to biological introductions and invasions, caused by increases in the intensity, diversity and distribution of human activities. This study identified 103 species that are likely to present a risk to biodiversity and ecosystems within the APR over the next 10 years; marine invertebrates dominated the list of highest risk species, but vertebrate species were thought unlikely to establish within the 10 year timeframe. We recommend the further development and application of biosecurity measures in the APR, and further studies to identify potential biological invaders in other regions of Antarctica. See also the Commentary by https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15013

Citizen science networks and tools offer researchers innovative ways of gathering data which can be used for conservation purposes. By engaging multiple stakeholders (from non-specialist members of the public to professional researchers), harnessing the enthusiasm and goodwill of a global community of interested parties can enormously speed up the collection of data. Conservationists urgently need to accelerate the rate at which the extinction risk of species are assessed, ideally using International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria. The palms are a group of plants with a particularly high risk of extinction, across the family, in the face of increasing habitat destruction and overexploitation of economically important taxa; as many as 83% of palm species in Madagascar are threatened with extinction. A global assessment of conservation status for the palm family was recognized as being urgently required nearly 20 years ago, but

International audience; Although the palm flora of continental Africa totals just 66 species, they are amongst the most useful plants across the continent, providing many important resources for human populations. Studies have shown that African palms will likely be negatively affected by global change, leading to increased threats to their survival. Here we conduct the first full global conservation assessment for 61 continental African palm species following IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Our study revealed that fewer than 10% of the evaluated species were assessed as Threatened. Within the Threatened category, one species was assessed as Critically Endangered, three as Endangered and two as Vulnerable. These results underline an overall low extinction risk for African palms in the immediate future, which is substantially lower than the global estimate of 21% for all plants. These results could be linked to the generally large distribution patterns of African palm species, the broad ecological amplitudes of most species and their good representation inside the African protected areas network. However, a non-negligible number of species (~15%) lack sufficient data to be properly assessed. This highlights the importance of further studies to improve our basic understanding of their distribution and threats. Our study provides a rather optimistic view of this highly important African plant resource yet, some widespread species are becoming locally rare due to over-harvesting for human use. At a local level, palm resources are generally non-sustainably exploited, which, coupled with climate change, could lead to a rapid increase in threat status over time.

Orchids are one of the largest plant families and are commercially traded for a variety of purposes, including as ornamental plants, medicinal products and food. These markets involve thousands of species, which may be traded legally or illegally, sustainably or unsustainably, and take place at local, national or international scales. In this review, we provide the first overview of commercial orchid trade globally and highlight the main types that involve wild-collected plants. Much of this trade is the result of illegal harvest meaning that it is little documented and is absent from official statistics, at the same time as being of growing conservation concern. We discuss the associated legal–regulatory context, identify key conservation challenges and highlight four key priorities for addressing these challenges. These are to (1) research trade dynamics and the impacts of harvest; (2) strengthen the legal trade of orchids; (3) adopt measures to reduce illegal trade; and (4) raise the profile of orchid trade among policy makers, conservationists and the public.

Ten new species, Cynorkis aconitiflora, C. christae, C. elephantina, C. jackyi, C. lentiginosa, C. mammuthus, C. mangabensis, C. sanguinolenta, C. siederi and C. syringescens, are described for the first time. The identity of C. elegans is clarified. The status of Arnottia and Physoceras are discussed and both subsumed into Cynorkis, with the necessary taxonomic changes made.

BackgroundThe need to incorporate genetic data into conservation management decisions is increasingly recognised. However, many published studies represent a ‘gold standard’ of sampling, techniques, and analyses. Such rigour is often not possible with limited funding and resourcing available for developing plans for the increasing number of threatened species requiring conservation management. Two endemic palm species of the Itremo Massif in central Madagascar,Dypsis ambositraeandD. decipiens, are known to be threatened with extinction and conservation management for these species is a priority for the newly created protected area in the region.MethodsThe genetic diversity of these two species was studied using the relatively low-cost and rapid AFLP technique. DNA fragments generated using three primer combinations were analysed for 20 and 50 individuals of the two species, respectively, from across their ranges.ResultsGenetic diversity was relatively low for both species. The two sites where the highly restrictedD. ambositraegrows were found to be genetically distinct (although overall heterozygosity was low). Despite having a much wider distribution and relatively large population,D. decipiensdid not show clear geographical nor genetic groupings and had similarly low genetic heterozygosity toD. ambositrae.Discussion and RecommendationsWith so few individuals remaining in the wild and two genetically distinct subpopulations, it is recommended that both sites ofD. ambositraeare conserved and that seed are collected from both forex situconservation and potential future reintroduction. It may be less important to focus resources on conserving or collectingex situmaterial from all sites whereD. decipiensis found, as the genetic diversity represented by each subpopulation is limited and increasing sampling may not protect significantly higher levels of genetic diversity. This study provides data that inform and support conservation decisions taken for both species within this region, and in the management of the newly designated Itremo Massif Protected Area, which covers most of the sites where these two species remain in the wild.

The genus Vanda and its affiliated taxa are a diverse group of horticulturally important species of orchids occurring mainly in South-East Asia, for which generic limits are poorly defined. Here, we present a molecular study using sequence data from three plastid DNA regions. It is shown that Vanda s.l. forms a clade containing approximately 73 species, including the previously accepted genera Ascocentrum, Euanthe, Christensonia, Neofinetia and Trudelia, and the species Aerides flabellata. Resolution of the phylogenetic relationships of species in Vanda s.l. is relatively poor, but existing morphological classifications for Vanda are incongruent with the results produced. Some novel species relationships are revealed, and a new morphological sectional classification is proposed based on support for these groupings and corresponding morphological characters shared by taxa and their geographical distributions. The putative occurrence of multiple pollination syndromes in this group of taxa, combined with complex biogeographical history of the South-East Asian region, is discussed in the context of these results.(c) 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 173, 549-572.

Summary. Vanda hngptepala, a new species of orchid from northern Burma is described and discussed.

The Orchidaceae is one of the eight families targeted for in-depth treatment in the groundbreaking eMonocot project. A consortium formed by RBG Kew, the Natural History Museum (London), and Oxford University, and funded by NERC, eMonocot is an e-taxonomy initiative that will provide the first web-based treatment for the world’s monocot plants (constituting approximately 20% of all higher plants, some 70,000 species, and including numerous groups of the highest conservation, ecological, and economic importance). eMonocot will revolutionize the way taxonomic data are organized and accessed by both the practitioners and users of taxonomy, targeted at biodiversity and environmental scientists but also available to other users including volunteer biologists, horticulturists, schools, and the general public. Available information will include nomenclature, taxonomic descriptions, images, identification guides, as well as geographical, ecological, DNA sequence, and conservation data structured around a taxonomy derived from the World Checklist of Monocotyledons. As part of the eMonocot project, identification guides, and taxon pages to all Orchidaceae genera will be produced, alongside an interactive key and taxon pages for all Cypripedioideae (slipper orchid) species and infra-specific taxa. Researchers may upload content (such as images and species descriptions) to the taxon pages, edit the classification as taxa are described and revised, and access original publications for names and much more. The Orchidaceae is one of the eight families targeted for in-depth treatment in the groundbreaking eMonocot project. A consortium formed by RBG Kew, the Natural History Museum (London), and Oxford University, and funded by NERC, eMonocot is an e-taxonomy initiative that will provide the first web-based treatment for the world’s monocot plants (constituting approximately 20% of all higher plants, some 70,000 species, and including numerous groups of the highest conservation, ecological, and economic importance). eMonocot will revolutionize the way taxonomic data are organized and accessed by both the practitioners and users of taxonomy, targeted at biodiversity and environmental scientists but also available to other users including volunteer biologists, horticulturists, schools, and the general public. Available information will include nomenclature, taxonomic descriptions, images, identification guides, as well as geographical, ecological, DNA sequence, and conservation data structured around a taxonomy derived from the World Checklist of Monocotyledons. As part of the eMonocot project, identification guides, and taxon pages to all Orchidaceae genera will be produced, alongside an interactive key and taxon pages for all Cypripedioideae (slipper orchid) species and infra-specific taxa. Researchers may upload content (such as images and species descriptions) to the taxon pages, edit the classification as taxa are described and revised, and access original publications for names and much more.

Eremospatha dransfieldii is a robust rattan palm, climbing up to 40 m in length. It is only known to occur in the south-western region of Ghana, south-eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire and in Sierra Leone. The species' Area of Occupancy (AOO) is restricted to just 40 km². This species is confined to moist-evergreen forests with high rainfall. It is known to be facing habitat loss and over-harvesting of its stems. We assess Eremospatha dransfieldii as Endangered based on criteron B2ab(iii), according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (ver 3.1).

A number of new combinations of names in subtribe Aeridinae are needed to bring species nomenclature for Vanda into alignment with recent phylogenetic analyses and a treatment to be published in a forthcoming volume of Genera orchidacearum . I present 17 name transfers from Ascocentrum, Ascocentropsis, Christensonia, Eparmatostigma, and Neofinetia to Vanda or indicate where there are existing epithets combined previously in Vanda .

Vanda tricolor Lindl. is widespread in cultivation in South East Asia, being relatively easily cultivated in the garden, and is often seen growing floriferously on garden trees, fence posts and verandas. Whilst the species is widespread in cultivation in its native regions of Java and Bali, wild populations are small and highly fragmented. The author’s recent field trip to Java and Bali found few wild examples of the species, and the few plants found were in the most inaccessible trees, due to massive over-collection, often with no other V. tricolor plants to be found in the area. Vanda tricolor Lindl. is widespread in cultivation in South East Asia, being relatively easily cultivated in the garden, and is often seen growing floriferously on garden trees, fence posts and verandas. Whilst the species is widespread in cultivation in its native regions of Java and Bali, wild populations are small and highly fragmented. The author’s recent field trip to Java and Bali found few wild examples of the species, and the few plants found were in the most inaccessible trees, due to massive over-collection, often with no other V. tricolor plants to be found in the area.