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Text S1. Analysis of residual spatial dependence. Text S2. Model specification. Table S1. Number of individuals with two or more STH infections. Table S2. Number of individuals with mono- and co-infections. Table S3. Summary of parameters of semivariograms for prevalence of mono- and co-infections. Table S4. Summary of parameters of semivariograms for prevalence of infection intensity classes. Table S5. Summary of validation statistics for models used in study. Figure S1. Semivariograms of prevalence of co-infection models. Figure S2. Semivariograms of prevalence of infection intensity classes model. Figure S3. Map of observed prevalence of mono- and co-infections in Luzon. Figure S4. Map of observed prevalence of mono- and co-infections in the Visayas. Figure S5. Map of observed prevalence of mono- and co-infections in Mindanao. Figure S6. Map of observed infection intensity classes of A. lumbricoides in Mindanao. Figure S7. Map of observed infection intensity classes of T. trichiura in Mindanao. Figure S8. Maps of standard deviation of predicted prevalence of A. lumbricoides mono-, T. trichiura mono-, and co-infection. Figure S9. Maps of standard deviation of predicted prevalence of infection intensity classes of A. lumbricoides. Figure S10. Maps of standard deviation of predicted prevalence of infection intensity classes of T. trichiura. Figure S11. Maps showing number of individuals with A. lumbricoides monoinfection. Figure S12. Maps showing number of individuals with T. trichiura monoinfection. Figure S13. Maps showing number of individuals with co-infections. Figure S14. Map showing number of individuals with light intensity class of A. lumbricoides. Figure S15. Map showing number of individuals with moderate/high intensity classes of A. lumbricoides. Figure S16. Map showing number of individuals with light intensity class of T. trichiura. Figure S17. Map showing number of individuals with moderate/high intensity classes of T. trichiura. (DOCX 4419 kb)

Executive Summary Background Southeast Asia has been at the epicentre of recent epidemics of emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases. Community-based surveillance and control interventions have been heavily promoted but the most effective interventions have not been identified. Objectives This review evaluated evidence for the effectiveness of community-based surveillance interventions at monitoring and identifying emerging infectious disease; the effectiveness of community-based control interventions at reducing rates of emerging infectious disease; and contextual factors that influence intervention effectiveness. Inclusion criteria Participants Communities in Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. Types of intervention(s) Non-pharmaceutical, non-vaccine, and community-based surveillance or prevention and control interventions targeting rabies, Nipah virus, dengue, SARS or avian influenza. Types of outcomes Primary outcomes: measures: of infection or disease; secondary outcomes: measures of intervention function. Types of studies Original quantitative studies published in English. Search strategy Databases searched (1980 to 2011): PubMed, CINAHL, ProQuest, EBSCOhost, Web of Science, Science Direct, Cochrane database of systematic reviews, WHOLIS, British Development Library, LILACS, World Bank (East Asia), Asian Development Bank. Methodological quality Two independent reviewers critically appraised studies using standard Joanna Briggs Institute instruments. Disagreements were resolved through discussion. Data extraction A customised tool was used to extract quantitative data on intervention(s), populations, study methods, and primary and secondary outcomes; and qualitative contextual information or narrative evidence about interventions. Data synthesis Data was synthesised in a narrative summary with the aid of tables. Meta-analysis was used to statistically pool quantitative results. Results Fifty-seven studies were included. Vector control interventions using copepods, environmental cleanup and education are effective and sustainable at reducing dengue in rural and urban communities, whilst insecticide spraying is effective in urban outbreak situations. Community-based surveillance interventions can effectively identify avian influenza in backyard flocks, but have not been broadly applied. Outbreak control interventions for Nipah virus and SARS are effective but may not be suitable for ongoing control. Canine vaccination and education is more acceptable than culling, but still fails to reach coverage levels required to effectively control rabies. Contextual factors were identified that influence community engagement with, and ultimately effectiveness of, interventions. Conclusion Despite investment in community-based disease control and surveillance in Southeast Asia, published evidence evaluating interventions is limited in quantity and quality. Nonetheless this review identified a number of effective interventions, and several contextual factors influencing effectiveness. Identification of the best programs will require comparative evidence of effectiveness acceptability, cost-effectiveness and sustainability. Implications for practice Interventions are more effective if there are high levels of community ownership and engagement. Linkages between veterinary and public health surveillance systems are essential. Interventions are not well accepted when they fail to acknowledge the importance of animals for economic activity in communities. Implications for research Evidence is needed on functioning and outcomes of current surveillance systems and novel low-cost methods of surveillance. Evaluations of control interventions should control for confounding and report measures of disease, cost and sustainability. Translational research is needed to assess generalisability and evaluate roll-out of effective interventions as regional or national programs.