Search

Restrictions in labor law constitute a significant component of the content of the acts of the International Labor Organization’s regulatory framework, serving as vital instruments for governing labor relations at both the international and national levels. Particularly in the context of globalization, digitalization and proliferation of non-standard employment arrangements, these restrictions play a crucial role in safeguarding employee rights and maintaining stability in labor regulation. In 2023 report of the ILO Committee of Experts highlighted issues concerning the misalignment of Russian legislation with the international norms outlined in ILO Conventions Nos. 81, 87, 98, 100, and 111. Employing formal legal and comparative legal methodologies, this report conducts a comprehensive analysis of restrictions pertaining to trade union representation, the right to strike, prevention of sexual harassment and protection from mobbing, challenges related to gender and racial equality in the labor sphere and the operations of labor inspections. The study delves into the experiences of various foreign countries (France, India, Hungary, Finland, Sweden, USA, Great Britain, and Germany) in addressing these issues, and proposes strategies for enhancing Russian labor legislation to align with ILO conventions. Furthermore, through a systematic examination of law-making and law enforcement practices of the ILO, it provides a refined interpretation of the concept of “restriction in labor law”. The novelty of this work also lies in its integrated approach, analyzing labor and legal restrictions within the international and national legal systems of states. This study fills a gap left by previous fragmented research efforts that did not specifically address restrictions in labor law.

Geological mapping provides vital information about the structure, evolution, natural resource potential, and geohazards of a specific area. The role of geological mapping is especially valuable for mountainous countries like Georgia. In this context, we present a geological map of the Mulkhura River Valley in the Georgian Caucasus (43°3′ N, 42°52′ E) with accompanying cross-sections at a scale of 1:30,000, covering approximately 220 km2. The geological information in the map is based on a comprehensive review of previously published geological maps and literature, combined with original analysis of satellite imagery and hitherto unpublished field data. The extensive spatial coverage and accompanying cross-sections provide detailed insights into the structure of the region. This new map will serve as a foundation for future geological research, hazard management, and resource exploration in the area, as well as for geoconservation to develop the national geotourism industry in this region.

Supra-glacial debris cover is important for the control of surface ice melt and glacier retreat in mountain regions. Despite the progress in techniques based on various satellite imagery, the mapping of debris-covered glacier boundaries over large regions remains a challenging task. Previous studies of the debris-covered glaciers in the Greater Caucasus have only focused on limited areas. In this study, using the Sentinel 1–2 imagery (2020), DebCovG-carto toolbox, and existing glacier inventory (2020), we produced the first detailed assessment of supra-glacial debris cover for individual glaciers in the entire Greater Caucasus. Our study shows that in 2020, 10.3 ± 5.6% of the glacier surface in this mountain region was covered by debris. A comparison of sub-regions such as the Elbrus Massif and other individual glaciers from the central Greater Caucasus shows an increasing trend of supra-glacial debris cover from 2014 to 2020. The total area of supra-glacial debris cover expanded from ~4.6% to ~5.8% for Elbrus and from ~9.5% to ~13.9% for the glaciers of the central Greater Caucasus during the same period. Supra-glacial debris cover also expanded upward on these glaciers between 2014 and 2020. A recent increase in rock-ice avalanche activity in combination with increased air temperature and decreased precipitation in the Greater Caucasus may be responsible for this upward migration and expanded area of supra-glacial debris cover. This study provides valuable insights into the spatial distribution, temporal evolution, and factors influencing supra-glacial debris cover in the Greater Caucasus. The findings contribute to our understanding of glacier dynamics and highlight the importance of continuous monitoring and assessment of supra-glacial debris cover in the context of climate change and glacier retreat. We recommend using the DebCovG-carto toolbox for regional assessment of supra-glacial debris coverage in other mountain regions as well.

ABSTRACTDetailed glacial geomorphological maps are valuable for identifying target sites for palaeoglaciological reconstructions and thus for palaeoclimate inferences. In this study, we present the first detailed glacial geomorphological mapping of the landform assemblages produced by the former glaciers in the Notsarula (42°45′44″N 43°38′29″E) and Chanchakhi (42°42′5″N 43°40′42″E) river valleys, Georgian Caucasus. Our goal is to create a high-resolution (1:33,000 scale) glacial geomorphological map of this area (237 km2) and provide a detailed and accurate distribution of glacier-related features (see Main Map). Several field investigations between 2010 and 2022 along with detailed remote sensing surveys have been conducted for this glacial geomorphological mapping. The mapped landforms indicate multiple readvance or stillstands of valley glaciers across the study area. The largest and complex glacier body likely existed in the Bubistskali River gorge (42°43′16″N 43°43′32″E). Well-preserved moraine landforms in this valley suggest at least five large and several relatively small glacier readvances or stillstands occurred during the Late Quaternary. The simple-valley-type (without branches) glaciers were also probably present in other tributary valleys of the Chanchakhi River basin at that time. This map can be used for further geomorphological investigation as well as to support future geochronological work in the Greater Caucasus.

Detailed geomorphological mapping of ice-related and post-glacial landforms is widely used to explain past glacial fluctuations and dynamics. Here we present the first detailed glacial geomorphological description of the landform assemblages produced by the former Ahuriri Glacier, Southern Alps, New Zealand (44° 15′ S, 169° 36′ E). The Southern Alps of New Zealand experienced multiple episodes of glaciation during the Late Quaternary with large mountain glaciers in many valleys, but very little is known about the Ahuriri River valley, one of the main tributaries of the Waitaki River. We selected a region extending approximately 45 km downstream from the headwaters of the Ahuriri River covering an area of about 532 km2. Our goal was to create a detailed 1:38,000 scale glacial geomorphological map of this area and provide a geomorphological context to support future geochronological work. Glacial geomorphological mapping was performed by combining several field investigations and remote sensing surveys. We provided high-resolution spatial information for all the glacial-related landforms shown on the map (see main Map). The distribution of post-glacial landforms in the middle and lower section of the main valley outline at least three advances or stillstand phases of past glaciers and suggesting the maximum length (∼41 km) of the former glacier during the Last Glacial Maximum. Most of the tributary valleys were also probably covered by ice at this time. Other prominent but smaller size moraine landforms, mostly in the tributary river valleys, also suggest relatively small, post-glacial advance phases of former glaciers.

Global warming is causing glaciers in the Caucasus Mountains and around the world to lose mass at an accelerated pace. As a result of this rapid retreat, significant parts of the glacierized surface area can be covered with debris deposits, often making them indistinguishable from the surrounding land surface by optical remote-sensing systems. Here, we present the DebCovG-carto toolbox to delineate debris-covered and debris-free glacier surfaces from non-glacierized regions. The algorithm uses synthetic aperture radar-derived coherence images and the normalized difference snow index applied to optical satellite data. Validating the remotely-sensed boundaries of Ushba and Chalaati glaciers using field GPS data demonstrates that the use of pairs of Sentinel-1 images (2019) from identical ascending and descending orbits can substantially improve debris-covered glacier surface detection. The DebCovG-carto toolbox leverages multiple orbits to automate the mapping of debris-covered glacier surfaces. This new automatic method offers the possibility of quickly correcting glacier mapping errors caused by the presence of debris and makes automatic mapping of glacierized surfaces considerably faster than the use of other subjective methods.

Individual glacier changes are still poorly documented in the Georgian Caucasus. In this paper, the change of Chalaati and Zopkhito glaciers in Georgian Caucasus has been studied between 1960 and 2014. Glacier geometries are reconstructed from archival topographic maps, Corona and Landsat images, along with modern field surveys. For the first time in the Georgian Caucasus aerial photogrammetric survey of both glacier termini was performed (2014) using a drone or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, where high-resolution orthomosaics and digital elevation models were produced. We show that both glaciers have experienced area loss since 1960: 16.2±4.9 per cent for Chalaati Glacier and 14.6±5.1 per cent for Zopkhito Glacier with corresponding respective terminus retreat by ~675 m and ~720 m. These were accompanied by a rise in the equilibrium line altitudes of ~35 m and ~30 m, respectively. The glacier changes are a response to regional warming in surface air temperature over the last half century. We used a long-term temperature record from the town of Mestia and short-term meteorological observations at Chalaati and Zopkhito glaciers to estimate a longer-term air temperature record for both glaciers. This analysis suggests an increase in the duration of the melt season over the 54-year period, indicating the importance of summertime air temperature trends in controlling glacier loss in the Georgian Caucasus. We also observed supra-glacial debris cover increase for both glaciers over the last half century: from 6.16±6.9 per cent to 8.01±6.8 per cent for Chalaati Glacier and from 2.80±6.3 per cent to 8.53±5.7 per cent for Zopkhito Glacier.

Rock glaciers are an integral part of the periglacial environment. At the regional scale in the Greater Caucasus, there have been no comprehensive systematic efforts to assess the distribution of rock glaciers, although some individual parts of ranges have been mapped before. In this study we produce the first inventory of rock glaciers from the entire Greater Caucasus region—Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. A remote sensing survey was conducted using Geo-Information System (GIS) and Google Earth Pro software based on high-resolution satellite imagery—SPOT, Worldview, QuickBird, and IKONOS, based on data obtained during the period 2004–2021. Sentinel-2 imagery from the year 2020 was also used as a supplementary source. The ASTER GDEM (2011) was used to determine location, elevation, and slope for all rock glaciers. Using a manual approach to digitize rock glaciers, we discovered that the mountain range contains 1461 rock glaciers with a total area of 297.8 ± 23.0 km2. Visual inspection of the morphology suggests that 1018 rock glaciers with a total area of 199.6 ± 15.9 km2 (67% of the total rock glacier area) are active, while the remaining rock glaciers appear to be relict. The average maximum altitude of all rock glaciers is found at 3152 ± 96 m above sea level (a.s.l.) while the mean and minimum altitude are 3009 ± 91 m and 2882 ± 87 m a.s.l., respectively. We find that the average minimum altitude of active rock glaciers is higher (2955 ± 98 m a.s.l.) than in relict rock glaciers (2716 ± 83 m a.s.l.). No clear difference is discernible between the surface slope of active (41.4 ± 3°) and relict (38.8 ± 4°) rock glaciers in the entire mountain region. This inventory provides a database for understanding the extent of permafrost in the Greater Caucasus and is an important basis for further research of geomorphology and palaeoglaciology in this region. The inventory will be submitted to the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS) database and can be used for future studies.

This study analyses the Devdoraki Glacier surge type catastrophes since 1776, lead to human casualties, destruction of settlements and the international road in the Georgian Caucasus. According to archival data, at least six ice and ice-rock avalanches fell from the Devdoraki Glacier onto the Tergi (Terek) River valley during the period 1776–1876, the largest on June 18, 1776 and on August 13, 1832. The first blocked the Tergi River for three days and was breached catastrophically; the second was ~100 m high and ~2 km wide and its breach started after 8 hours. The most recent hazard occurred on May 17, 2014 killing nine people, and destroyed the Trans-Caucasus gas pipeline, Dariali Hydropower Plant (HPP) and international road. Using aerial and satellite imagery – Landsat, ASTER, SENTINEL along with the 30 m resolution Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Global Digital Elevation Model (ASTER GDEM; 17 November 2011) we have reconstructed this event. On the basis of subsequent detailed field observations, new geological and tectonic maps of the study region have been compiled. After that collapse we have registered ~180 m advance of the Devdoraki Glacier snout between 2014 and 2015, which was mostly caused by rock-ice avalanche deposits. This part of the glacier should be monitored continuously as it can raise debris flow activity in the future. We consider the main hypotheses behind these events, namely a) tectonic and seismic, b) permafrost, c) volcanic and d) morphological factors; interpret the data for mechanisms and velocities of the catastrophic movement and argue that the 2014 event should not be classified as a glacier surge, although the possibility of similar glacial surges can not be excluded. The Kazbegi-Jimara massif should be considered as a natural laboratory that enables the investigation of rock-ice avalanches and glacial mudflows.

Glacier variations over the past centuries are still poorly documented on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus. In this paper, the change of Chalaati Glacier in the Georgian Caucasus from its maximum extent during the Little Ice Age has been studied. For the first time in the history of glaciological studies of the Georgian Caucasus, 10Be in situ Cosmic Ray Exposure (CRE) dating was applied. The age of moraines was determined by tree-ring analysis. Lichenometry was also used as a supplementary tool to determine the relative ages of glacial landforms. In addition, the large-scale topographical maps (1887, 1960) were used along with the satellite imagery - Corona, Landsat 5 TM, and Sentinel 2B. Repeated photographs were used to identify the glacier extent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 10Be CRE ages from the oldest lateral moraine of the Chalaati Glacier suggest that the onset of the Little Ice Age occurred ~0.74 - ~0.62 kyr ago (CE ~1280-1400), while the dendrochronology and lichenometry measurements show that the Chalaati Glacier reached its secondary maximum extent again about CE ~1810. Since that time to 2018 the glacier area decreased from 14.93±1.45 km2 to 9.89±0.50 km2 (33.75±7.4% or ~0.16 yr-1), while its length decreased by ~2280 m. The retreat rate was uneven: it peaked between 1940 and 1972 (~22.5 m yr-1), while the rate was slowest in 1910-1930 (~4.0 m yr-1). The terminus elevation rose from ~1620 m to ~1980 m in ~1810-2018.

Glaciers and snow in the Caucasus are major sources of runoff for populated places in many parts of this mountain region. These glaciers have shown a continuous area decrease; however, the magnitude of mass balance changes at the regional scale need to be further investigated. Here, we analyzed regional changes in surface elevation (or thickness) and geodetic mass balance for 1861 glaciers (1186.1 ± 53.3 km2) between 2000 and 2019 from recently published dataset and outlines of the Caucasus glacier inventory. We used a debris-covered glacier dataset to compare the changes between debris-free and debris-covered glaciers. We also used 30 m resolution ASTER GDEM (2011) to determine topographic details, such as aspect, slope, and elevation distribution of glaciers. Results indicate that the mean rate of glacier mass loss has accelerated from 0.42 ± 0.61 m of water equivalent per year (m w.e. a−1) over 2000–2010, to 0.64 ± 0.66 m w.e. a−1 over 2010–2019. This was 0.53 ± 0.38 m w.e. a−1 in 2000–2019. Mass loss rates differ between the western, central, and eastern Greater Caucasus, indicating the highest mean annual mass loss in the western section (0.65 ± 0.43 m w.e. a−1) in 2000–2019 and much lower in the central (0.48 ± 0.35 m w.e. a−1) and eastern (0.38 ± 0.37 m w.e. a−1) sections. No difference was found between the northern and southern slopes over the last twenty years corresponding 0.53 ± 0.38 m w.e. a−1. The observed decrease in mean annual geodetic mass balance is higher on debris-covered glaciers (0.66 ± 0.17 m w.e. a−1) than those on debris-free glaciers (0.49 ± 0.15 m w.e. a−1) between 2000 and 2019. Thickness change values in 2010–2019 were 1.5 times more negative (0.75 ± 0.70 m a−1) than those in 2000–2010 (0.50 ± 0.67 m a−1) in the entire region, suggesting an acceleration of ice thinning starting in 2010. A significant positive trend of May-September air temperatures at two selected meteorological stations (Terskol and Mestia) along with a negative trend of October-April precipitation might be responsible for the negative mass balances and thinning for all Caucasus glaciers over the study period. These results provide insight into the change processes of regional glaciers, which is key information to improve glaciological and hydrological projections in the Caucasus region.

Geological mapping provides vital information about the structure, evolution, natural resource potential, and geohazards of a specific area. The role of geological mapping is especially valuable for mountainous countries like Georgia. In this context, we present a geological map of the Mulkhura River Valley in the Georgian Caucasus (43°3′ N, 42°52′ E) with accompanying cross-sections at a scale of 1:30,000, covering approximately 220 km2. The geological information in the map is based on a comprehensive review of previously published geological maps and literature, combined with original analysis of satellite imagery and hitherto unpublished field data. The extensive spatial coverage and accompanying cross-sections provide detailed insights into the structure of the region. This new map will serve as a foundation for future geological research, hazard management, and resource exploration in the area, as well as for geoconservation to develop the national geotourism industry in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the midlatitudes of the planet, we are facing the imminent disappearance of one of our best high-resolution (pre)historic climate and anthropogenic pollution archives, namely the loss of glacial ice, through accelerated global warming. To capture these records and interpret these vanishing archives, it is imperative that we extract ice-cores from midlatitude regions where glaciers still survive and analyse them within frameworks of inter-disciplinary research. In this paper, we focus on Georgia, part of the Greater Caucasus. Results of ice-core analyses from the region have never, to date, been integrated with its other abundant palaeo-environmental, archaeological and historical sources. We review the results of international projects on palaeo-environmental/geoarchaeological sediment archives, the archaeology of metal economies and preliminary ice-core data in Georgia. Collectively, we show that the different strands need to be integrated to fully explore relationships between climate/landscape change and human societal transformations. We then introduce an inclusive interdisciplinary framework for ongoing research on these themes, with an ultimate future goal of using data from the past to inform societal resilience strategies in the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supra-glacial debris cover is important for the control of surface ice melt and glacier retreat in mountain regions. Despite the progress in techniques based on various satellite imagery, the mapping of debris-covered glacier boundaries over large regions remains a challenging task. Previous studies of the debris-covered glaciers in the Greater Caucasus have only focused on limited areas. In this study, using the Sentinel 1–2 imagery (2020), DebCovG-carto toolbox, and existing glacier inventory (2020), we produced the first detailed assessment of supra-glacial debris cover for individual glaciers in the entire Greater Caucasus. Our study shows that in 2020, 10.3 ± 5.6% of the glacier surface in this mountain region was covered by debris. A comparison of sub-regions such as the Elbrus Massif and other individual glaciers from the central Greater Caucasus shows an increasing trend of supra-glacial debris cover from 2014 to 2020. The total area of supra-glacial debris cover expanded from ~4.6% to ~5.8% for Elbrus and from ~9.5% to ~13.9% for the glaciers of the central Greater Caucasus during the same period. Supra-glacial debris cover also expanded upward on these glaciers between 2014 and 2020. A recent increase in rock-ice avalanche activity in combination with increased air temperature and decreased precipitation in the Greater Caucasus may be responsible for this upward migration and expanded area of supra-glacial debris cover. This study provides valuable insights into the spatial distribution, temporal evolution, and factors influencing supra-glacial debris cover in the Greater Caucasus. The findings contribute to our understanding of glacier dynamics and highlight the importance of continuous monitoring and assessment of supra-glacial debris cover in the context of climate change and glacier retreat. We recommend using the DebCovG-carto toolbox for regional assessment of supra-glacial debris coverage in other mountain regions as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract. In Georgia, numerous sites date back to the Bronze Age. Nearby Bashplemi Lake, the site of the discovery of a basalt tablet bearing an inscription with unknown characters, is the site where the skull of a 1.8-million-year-old hominin, the first European, was discovered. This tablet, which bears 60 signs, 39 of them different, raises the question of the origin of the Georgian script, proto-Georgian. While the basalt on which it is based is known to be of local origin, its meaning is unknown and there remains a long way to go to decipher it. An initial comparative analysis conducted with over 20 languages shows that the characters, which could belong to an aboriginal Caucasian population, beside proto-Georgian and Albanian writing signs, bear some similarities with Semitic, Brahmani, and North Iberian characters.

Understanding SARS-CoV-2 infection in populations at increased risk for poor health is critical to reducing disease. We describe the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Kakuma Refugee Camp Complex, Kenya. We performed descriptive analyses of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the camp and surrounding community during March 16, 2020‒December 31, 2021. We identified cases in accordance with national guidelines.We estimated fatality ratios and attack rates over time using locally weighted scatterplot smoothing for refugees, host community members, and national population. Of the 18,864 SARS-CoV-2 tests performed, 1,024 were positive, collected from 664 refugees and 360 host community members. Attack rates were 325.0/100,000 population (CFR 2.9%) for refugees,150.2/100,000 population (CFR 1.11%) for community, and 628.8/100,000 population (CFR 1.83%) nationwide. During 2020–2021, refugees experienced a lower attack rate but higher CFR than the national population, underscoring the need to prioritize SARS-CoV-2 mitigation measures, including vaccination.