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Soil–vegetation–atmosphere interaction has long been known to induce significant pore pressure variations at shallow depths and associated superficial slope movements. Recent findings suggest that the effect of this interaction may also extend to large depths in natural clay slopes. Multiple examples of weather-induced deep landslide mechanisms can be found in the Southern Apennines (Italy), where slopes are often formed of fissured clays. The relationship between the activity of these landslides and the hydro-mechanical processes due to soil–vegetation–atmosphere interaction was investigated herein by means of a two-dimensional coupled hydro-mechanical finite element analysis. A constitutive model capable of simulating the behaviour of highly overconsolidated clays, in both saturated and unsaturated states, was adopted in the analysis, in conjunction with a boundary condition capable of reproducing the combined effects of rainfall infiltration, evapo-transpiration, and run-off. The results of the analysis corroborate the connection between weather conditions, pore pressure variations, and slope movements in natural clay slopes. The importance of adequately reproducing the geological history of a natural slope to define its current state is also demonstrated.

The finite element (FE) method may suffer from numerical instability and mesh dependency when modelling the formation of shear bands using strain-softening constitutive models. Nonlocal methods have been shown to be capable of avoiding these numerical issues effectively. This paper proposes a novel generic algorithm for incorporating existing nonlocal methods into the FE formulation of elasto-plastic constitutive models with volumetric hardening laws. Using the example of the modified Cam Clay (MCC) model this paper shows that instabilities are inevitable if the nonlocal plastic volumetric strains are directly used to update the hardening parameter. The paper further proposes a robust regularisation algorithm to overcome this issue. This algorithm has been implemented into a bespoke FE code and its capability in significantly reducing mesh dependency while maintaining numerical stability is verified through a series of numerical analyses of biaxial compression tests for highly overconsolidated clays. The performance of various existing nonlocal methods is also critically assessed.

Thermo-active structures are underground facilities that enable the exchange of thermal energy between the ground and the overlying buildings, thus providing renewable means of space heating and cooling. Although this technology is becoming increasingly popular, the behaviour of geotechnical structures under additional thermal loading is still not fully understood. This paper focuses on the use of underground tunnels as thermo-active structures and explains their behaviour through a series of finite-element analyses based on an existing case study of isothermal tunnels in London Clay. The bespoke finite-element code adopted – the Imperial College Finite Element Program (ICFEP) – is capable of simulating the fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of porous materials. The complex coupled interactions between the tunnel and the surrounding soil are explored by comparing results from selected types of coupled and uncoupled simulations. It is demonstrated that: (a) the thermally induced deformation of the tunnel and the ground are more critical design aspects than the thermally induced forces in the tunnel lining, and (b) the modelling approach in terms of the type of analysis, as well as the assumed permeability of the tunnel lining, has a significant effect on the computed tunnel response and, hence, must be chosen carefully.

This paper describes the results obtained from a field testing campaign on laterally loaded monopiles conducted at Cowden, UK, where the soil consists principally of a heavily overconsolidated glacial till. These tests formed part of the PISA project on the development of improved design methods for monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines. Results obtained for monotonic loading tests on piles of three different diameters (0·273 m, 0·762 m and 2·0 m) are presented. The piles had length-to-diameter ratios (L/D) of between 3 and 10. The tests included the application of monotonic loading incorporating periods of constant load to investigate creep effects, and investigations on the influence of loading rate. Data are presented on measured bending moments and inclinations induced in the piles. Inferred data on lateral displacements of the embedded section of the piles are determined using an optimised structural model. These field data support the development of a new one-dimensional modelling approach for the design of monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines. They also form a unique database of field measurements in an overconsolidated clay, from lateral loading of piles at a vertical distance above the ground surface.

The PISA Joint Industry Research Project was concerned with the development of improved design methods for monopile foundations in offshore wind applications. PISA involved large-scale pile tests in overconsolidated glacial till at Cowden, north-east England, and in dense, normally consolidated marine sand at Dunkirk, northern France. This paper describes the experimental set-up for pile testing, with unique features of load-application mechanisms and built-in fibre optic strain gauges. New procedures are described for the interpretation of pile loading data, and specifically for providing precise interpretation of pile displacements.

In a FE analysis of transient heat transfer, a lower limit of the time-step size exists below which numerical oscillations of temperatures may occur. Although time-step constraints for simulating 1D heat diffusion have been well established in the literature, the conclusions cannot be directly applied to 2D cases. In this paper, both analytical and computational studies are carried out to obtain the time-step constraints for 2D linear and quadratic elements. It is noted that in the simulation of 2D heat diffusion employing quadratic elements is not always beneficial. Recommendations are provided on selecting the numerical scheme to minimise numerical oscillations.

This paper presents a coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) finite element (FE) formulation which is capable of accounting for the effects of temperature change on the behaviour of unsaturated soils. Both vapour flow and density variation are taken into account in the development of this formulation. The full derivation procedure is provided and the adopted assumptions are stated and explained. To improve the efficiency of the nonlinear solution process while maintaining the accuracy of the prediction, a novel approach for determining iterative corrections when modelling coupled transient problems with the Newton-Raphson algorithm is established and presented here. The performance of the proposed FE formulation and of the new strategy for iterative corrections in a nonlinear solver is subsequently demonstrated and verified by simulations of laboratory experiments on unsaturated compacted bentonite, showing good agreement between the numerical and experimental results.

Thermo-active structures exchange heat with the ground to provide thermal energy to buildings. Consequently, the ground is subjected to changes in temperature, inducing thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) interactions within the soil. To provide insights into the origin and manifestations of the main mechanisms taking place in complex fully THM-coupled finite element (FE) analyses, simple, one-dimensional problems are firstly analysed in this paper and compared to analytical expressions developed for determining thermally-induced excess pore water pressures in undrained problems with different displacement restraints. Subsequently, various dimensionless parameters are established to evaluate the impact of varying ground properties on the observed THM interactions and their evolution with time. Finally, the findings from simple one-dimensional problems are verified in the context of THM modelling of thermo-active retaining walls, where the structural response of walls is shown to be highly transient and influenced by different phenomena prevailing over different periods involving thermal expansion of soils, volumetric deformations due to pore water generation and dissipation, and interactions with mechanical boundary conditions. The results also highlight the importance of performing fully coupled THM analyses and of a correct estimation of the hydraulic and thermal properties to guarantee a safe design of thermo-active structures.

Thermo-active retaining structures are geotechnical structures employed to provide thermal energy to buildings for space heating and cooling through heat exchanger pipes embedded within the concrete structure. Consequently, the design of these structures needs to consider both the long-term energy efficiency as well as the thermo-mechanical response in terms of stability and serviceability. Transient finite element analyses can be carried out to evaluate the behaviour of thermo-active walls, where the heat exchanger pipes are explicitly modelled, thus requiring three-dimensional (3D) analyses. However, performing long-term 3D finite element analyses is computationally expensive. For this reason, in this study, new approaches are presented that allow the thermal or thermo-mechanical design of thermo-active walls to be carried out by performing two-dimensional (2D) plane strain analyses. Two methods, which are based on different design criteria, are proposed and their performance in replicating the three-dimensional behaviour is assessed. Furthermore, the factors affecting the 2D approximations for the two modelling approaches are evaluated, where particular emphasis is given to the influence of the simulated boundary condition along the exposed face of the retaining wall.

Atmospheric phenomena such as rainfall and evapotranspiration contribute to slope movements in unsaturated soils, the study of which requires fully coupled numerical methods, combined with realistic boundary conditions and appropriate mechanical and hydraulic soil properties. This paper focuses on the effect of the hydraulic behaviour, and in particular of the modelling of the soil-water retention curve and the permeability on slope movements, with the aim of identifying which model parameters are critical and, therefore, require careful experimental identification.

Conventional laboratory triaxial tests apply axisymmetric boundary conditions to a cylindrical sample which has an axisymmetric geometry. For a homogeneous sample this implies that the deformed shape of the sample should maintain an axisymmetric geometry during the test. Consequently, the sample should deform in a barrelling mode and if slip planes develop they should define a cup and cone-like failure surface. However, in many triaxial tests such behaviour is not observed, especially as failure is approached when a planar slip surface develops. Such a deformation mode is not axisymmetric. One reason for this behaviour is that a fissure pre-exists in the sample. Employing hydro-mechanically coupled three-dimensional finite-element analyses, this paper investigates the influence of a single fissure in a triaxial sample of stiff clay on its behaviour throughout the test, focusing on the fissure position, orientation, strength and stiffness, in conjunction with the sample's end-restraints (rough or smooth). The effects are quantified in terms of the sample's overall stiffness and strength, indicating that the presence of a fissure can affect the very small strain stiffness, and that it has a significant effect on the strength of the sample, demonstrating that the conventional methods used to interpret laboratory tests may give unconservative results. The results also show a significant effect of the conditions at the top and bottom surfaces of the sample, where in particular the lateral restraint and rough ends introduce ‘bending’ in the sample.

Ground source energy systems (GSES) utilise low enthalpy geothermal energy and have been recognised as an efficient means of providing low carbon space heating and cooling. This study focuses on GSES where the exchange of heat between the ground and the building is achieved by circulating a fluid through heat exchanger pipes. Although numerical analysis is a powerful tool for exploring the performance of such systems, simulating the highly advective flows inside the heat exchanger pipes can be problematic. This paper presents an efficient approach for modelling these systems using the finite element method (FEM). The pipes are discretised with line elements and the conductive-advective heat flux along them is solved using the Petrov-Galerkin FEM instead of the conventional Galerkin FEM. Following extensive numerical studies, a modelling approach for simulating heat exchanger pipes, which employs line elements and a special material with enhanced thermal properties, is developed. The modelling approach is then adopted in three-dimensional simulations of two thermal response tests, with an excellent match between the computed and measured temperatures being obtained.

Thermo-active retaining walls are geotechnical structures employed as heat exchangers to provide low carbon dioxide heating and cooling to buildings. To assess the thermo-mechanical response of such structures, finite-element (FE) analyses are typically carried out. Due to the presence of heat exchanger pipes, the temperature distribution along the width of the wall is not uniform, implying that these problems are three-dimensional (3D) in nature. However, performing 3D FE analyses including elements to model the heat exchanger pipes to simulate the advective conductive heat transfer as well as thermo-hydro-mechanical coupling to reproduce the non-isothermal soil response accurately requires considerable computational effort. In this work, a novel approach to simulate thermo-active walls in 2D analyses was developed, which requires the sole use of thermal boundary conditions. This approach was found to reproduce average wall behaviour computed in 3D to a high degree of accuracy for numerous wall geometries, a wide range of thermal properties of soil and concrete, and different thermal boundary conditions along the exposed face of the wall. In addition, out-of-plane effects recorded in 3D analyses were assessed and an accurate simplified procedure to account for these when performing 2D analyses was developed.

This paper describes a one-dimensional (1D) computational model for the analysis and design of laterally loaded monopile foundations for offshore wind turbine applications. The model represents the monopile as an embedded beam and specially formulated functions, referred to as soil reaction curves, are employed to represent the various components of soil reaction that are assumed to act on the pile. This design model was an outcome of a recently completed joint industry research project – known as PISA – on the development of new procedures for the design of monopile foundations for offshore wind applications. The overall framework of the model, and an application to a stiff glacial clay till soil, is described in a companion paper by Byrne and co-workers; the current paper describes an alternative formulation that has been developed for soil reaction curves that are applicable to monopiles installed at offshore homogeneous sand sites, for drained loading. The 1D model is calibrated using data from a set of three-dimensional finite-element analyses, conducted over a calibration space comprising pile geometries, loading configurations and soil relative densities that span typical design values. The performance of the model is demonstrated by the analysis of example design cases. The current form of the model is applicable to homogeneous soil and monotonic loading, although extensions to soil layering and cyclic loading are possible.

The PISA design model is a procedure for the analysis of monopile foundations for offshore wind turbine applications. This design model has been previously calibrated for homogeneous soils; this paper extends the modelling approach to the analysis of monopiles installed at sites where the soil profile is layered. The paper describes a computational study on monopiles embedded in layered soil configurations comprising selected combinations of soft and stiff clay and sand at a range of relative densities. The study comprises (a) analyses of monopile behaviour using detailed three-dimensional (3D) finite-element analysis, and (b) calculations employing the PISA design model. Results from the 3D analyses are used to explore the various influences that soil layering has on the performance of the monopile. The fidelity of the PISA design model is assessed by comparisons with data obtained from equivalent 3D finite-element analyses, demonstrating a good agreement in most cases. This comparative study demonstrates that the PISA design model can be applied successfully to layered soil configurations, except in certain cases involving combinations of very soft clay and very dense sand.

This paper is the first of a set of linked publications on the PISA Joint Industry Research Project, which was concerned with the development of improved design methods for monopile foundations in offshore wind applications. PISA involved large-scale pile tests in overconsolidated glacial till at Cowden, north-east England, and in dense, normally consolidated marine sand at Dunkirk, northern France. The paper presents the characterisation of the two sites, which was crucial to the design of the field experiments and advanced numerical modelling of the pile–soil interactions. The studies described, which had to be completed at an early stage of the PISA project, added new laboratory and field campaigns to historic investigations at both sites. They enabled an accurate description of soil behaviour from small strains to ultimate states to be derived, allowing analyses to be undertaken that captured both the serviceability and limit state behaviour of the test monopiles.

A new Petrov-Galerkin finite element method for two-dimensional (2D) highly advective flows in porous media, which removes numerical oscillations and retains its precision compared to the conventional Galerkin finite element method, is presented. A new continuous weighting function for quadratic elements is proposed. Moreover, a numerical scheme is developed to ensure the weighting factors are accurately determined for 2D non-uniform flows and 2D distorted elements. Finally, a series of numerical examples are performed to demonstrate the capability of the approach. Comparison against existing methods in the simulation of a benchmark problem further verifies the robustness of the proposed method.

Owing to the repeatedly observed strong vertical ground motions and compressional damage of engineering structures in recent earthquakes, the multi-directional site response analysis is increasingly critical for the seismic design of important structures, such as nuclear power plants and high earth dams. However, the site response to the vertical component of the ground motion has not been the subject of detailed investigation in the literature. Therefore, in this paper, the vertical site response due to vertical ground motion is investigated by employing both analytical and numerical methods. First, a one-dimensional frequency domain analytical solution, which can be employed for vertical site response analysis in practice, is studied and compared against time domain finite-element (FE) analyses for the two extreme soil state conditions (i.e. undrained and drained conditions). The vertical site response is further investigated with hydro-mechanically (HM) coupled FE analysis, considering solid–fluid interaction. The parametric studies undertaken show that the predicted vertical site response is strongly affected by the parameters characterising the hydraulic phase, namely, soil permeability and soil state conditions, both in terms of frequency content and amplification. The subsequent corresponding quantitative investigation, of the frequency content and amplification function of the vertical site response, shows that depending on the soil permeability the response is dominated by the two types of compressional waves (fast and slow waves). Notably, the parametric studies identify a range of permeability that significantly affects dynamic soil properties in terms of P-wave velocities, damping ratios and vertical site response, and this range is relevant for geotechnical earthquake engineering applications. It is therefore recommended that coupled consolidation analysis is necessary to simulate this effect accurately at such permeability-dependent intermediate transient states between fully undrained and drained conditions. Finally, this work suggests a simple modification of standard total-stress site response analysis to account for vertical ground motion and solid–pore fluid interaction. In order to simulate the attenuation of the response due to solid–pore fluid interaction effects, it is suggested to employ additional HM viscous damping in total-stress analysis, further to the one used to account for hysteretic material damping. This additional viscous damping can be quantified based on the empirical curves proposed in the paper.

Contemporary geotechnical design often requires the use of advanced numerical analysis, if it is to take account of the complex nature of many geotechnical problems. One crucial aspect of such analyses is the realistic representation of the facets of soil behaviour that are dominant in any given problem, which in turn requires a careful selection of an appropriate constitutive model and derivation of model parameters from the available, and often disparate, experimental data. This paper uses the authors’ experience of advanced numerical analysis and constitutive modelling to emphasise the importance of close integration of the process involved with interpreting experimental data with the process of selecting and calibrating advanced constitutive models, in successfully predicting the response of geotechnical structures.

Thermo-active foundations utilise heat energy stored in the ground to provide a reliable and effective means of space heating and cooling. Previous studies have shown that the effects of temperature changes on their response are highly dependent on their interaction with the surrounding ground. Consequently, it is necessary to consider this interaction and include both the thermal and mechanical behaviour of the ground in design. This paper addresses this issue by performing state-of-the-art finite-element analyses using the Imperial College Finite Element Program, which is capable of simulating the fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of porous materials. First, the Lambeth College pile test is analysed to demonstrate the capability of the adopted modelling approach to capture the observed response under thermo-mechanical loading. Subsequently, a detailed study is carried out, demonstrating the impact of capturing the fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical response of the ground, the use of appropriate boundary conditions and the uncertainty surrounding thermal ground properties. It is demonstrated that the modelling approach has a large impact on the computed results, and therefore potentially on the design of thermo-active piles. Conversely, the effects of thermal conductivity and permeability of the soil are shown not to influence the pile behaviour significantly.

The stability of cut slopes is greatly influenced by seasonal pore-water pressure variations under the combined effect of rainfall and vegetation. However, predicting soil–atmosphere interaction is not straightforward, due to the complexity of both the boundary conditions involved and the hydromechanical behaviour of soils, which is coupled and highly nonlinear, rendering the use of numerical tools, such as finite element analysis, necessary. This paper discusses the numerical modelling of soil–atmosphere interaction and presents the analysis of a slope cut in London clay in a highly vegetated area. The whole life cycle of the slope is considered with phases of low and high water demand vegetation and vegetation clearance. The analysis results indicate that dense vegetation is associated with high factors of safety, but may induce large differential displacements, which are likely to affect the serviceability of the slope. Vegetation clearance, however, may initiate instability, highlighting the need for effective vegetation management to achieve a balance between serviceability and ultimate limit states. Although the case considered is representative of southeast England, it introduces the necessary tools for realistic numerical analysis of soil–atmosphere interaction.

Offshore wind turbines in shallow coastal waters are typically supported on monopile foundations. Although three-dimensional (3D) finite-element methods are available for the design of monopiles in this context, much of the routine design work is currently conducted using simplified one-dimensional (1D) models based on the p–y method. The p–y method was originally developed for the relatively large embedded length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) piles that are typically employed in offshore oil and gas structures. Concerns exist, however, that this analysis approach may not be appropriate for monopiles with the relatively low values of L/D that are typically adopted for offshore wind turbine structures. This paper describes a new 1D design model for monopile foundations; the model is specifically formulated for offshore wind turbine applications, although the general approach could be adopted for other applications. The model draws on the conventional p–y approach, but extends it to include additional components of soil reaction that act on the pile. The 1D model is calibrated using a set of bespoke 3D finite-element analyses of monopile performance, for pile characteristics and loading conditions that span a predefined design space. The calibrated 1D model provides results that match those obtained from the 3D finite-element calibration analysis, but at a fraction of the computational cost. Moreover, within the calibration space, the 1D model is capable of delivering high-fidelity computations of monopile performance that can be used directly for design purposes. This 1D modelling approach is demonstrated for monopiles installed in a stiff, overconsolidated glacial clay till with a typical North Sea strength and stiffness profile. Although the current form of the model has been developed for homogeneous soil and monotonic loading, it forms a basis from which extensions for soil layering and cyclic loading can be developed. The general approach can be applied to other foundation and soil–structure interaction problems, in which bespoke calibration of a simplified model can lead to more efficient design.

Geotechnical analysis is an integral part of the geotechnical design process. It is performed with the aim of assessing the stability and serviceability of geotechnical structures and their interaction with the natural and built environment. The complexities of many geotechnical problems and requirements for long-term design solutions increasingly require the use of advanced numerical analysis. This paper explores the application of advanced numerical tools in the lifecycle assessment of infrastructure slopes in stiff clays and of earthfill infrastructure embankments.

A temperature rise in soils is usually accompanied by an increase in excess pore fluid pressure due to the differential thermal expansion coefficients of the pore fluid and the soil particles. To model the transient behaviour of this thermally induced excess pore fluid pressure in geotechnical problems, a coupled THM formulation was employed in this study, which accounts for the non-linear temperature-dependent behaviour of both the soil permeability and the thermal expansion coefficient of the pore fluid. Numerical analyses of validation exercises (where there is an analytical solution), as well as of existing triaxial and centrifuge heating tests on Kaolin clay, were carried out in the current paper. The obtained numerical results exhibited good agreement with the analytical solution and experimental measurements respectively, demonstrating good capabilities of the applied numerical facilities and providing insight into the mechanism behind the observed evolution of the thermally induced pore fluid pressure. The numerical results further highlighted the importance of accounting for the temperature-dependent nature of the soil permeability and the thermal expansion coefficient of the pore fluid, commonly ignored in geotechnical numerical analysis.

Interface elements are frequently employed in finite element (FE) analyses to represent soil-structure interfaces or rock joints. The modelling of coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) problems in geotechnical engineering requires equally a coupled and robust THM formulation for interface elements. This paper presents such a formulation which is capable of reproducing the coupled THM behaviour of discontinuities and soil-structure boundaries, and is compatible with other types of finite elements used to discretise the soil and structural domains (e.g. solid and shell elements). The coupled THM three-dimensional (3D) zero-thickness interface element is implemented into the bespoke FE code employed in this research and its features are verified using a number of numerical exercises. To demonstrate their performance, the proposed interface elements are employed in the simulation of the coupled THM behaviour of a fissured triaxial sample subjected to a thermal load and the influence of the presence of fissures on soil behaviour is presented.

The PISA project was a combined field testing/numerical modelling study with the aim of developing improved design procedures for large-diameter piles subjected to lateral loading. This paper describes the development of a three-dimensional finite-element model for the medium-scale pile tests that were conducted in Cowden till as part of the PISA work. The paper places particular emphasis on the consistent interpretation of the soil data determined from the available field and laboratory information. An enhanced version of the modified Cam clay model was employed in the numerical analyses, featuring a non-linear Hvorslev surface, a generalised shape for the yield and plastic potential surfaces in the deviatoric plane and a non-linear formulation for the elastic shear modulus. Three-dimensional finite-element analyses were performed prior to the field tests. Excellent agreement between the measured and simulated behaviour for a range of pile geometries was observed, demonstrating the accuracy of the numerical model and the adequacy of the calibration process for the constitutive model. The developed numerical model confirmed the premise of the PISA design method that site-specific ground characterisation and advanced numerical modelling can directly facilitate the development of additional soil reaction curves for use in new design models for laterally loaded piles in a stiff clay till.

The results obtained from a field testing campaign on laterally loaded monopiles, conducted at a dense sand site in Dunkirk, northern France are described. These tests formed part of the PISA project on the development of improved design methods for monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines. Results obtained from monotonic loading tests on piles of three different diameters (0·273 m, 0·762 m and 2·0 m) are presented. The piles had length-to-diameter ratios (L/D) of between 3 and 10. The tests consisted principally of the application of monotonic loads, incorporating periods of held constant load to investigate creep effects. The influence of loading rate was also investigated. Data are presented on the overall load–displacement behaviour of each of the test piles. Measured data on bending moments and inclinations induced in the piles are also provided. Inferences are made for the displacements in the embedded length of the piles. These field data will support the development of a new one-dimensional modelling approach for the design of monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines. They also form a unique database of field measurements in a dense sand, from lateral loading of piles at a vertical distance above the ground surface.

The paper presents the development of a three-dimensional finite-element model for pile tests in dense Dunkirk sand, conducted as part of the PISA project. The project was aimed at developing improved design methods for laterally loaded piles, as used in offshore wind turbine foundations. The importance of the consistent and integrated interpretation of the soil data from laboratory and field investigations is particularly emphasised. The chosen constitutive model for sand is an enhanced version of the state parameter-based bounding surface plasticity model, which, crucially, is able to reproduce the dependency of sand behaviour on void ratio and stress level. The predictions from three-dimensional finite-element analyses, performed before the field tests, show good agreement with the measured behaviour, proving the adequacy of the developed numerical model and the calibration process for the constitutive model. This numerical model directly facilitated the development of new soil reaction curves for use in Winkler-type design models for laterally loaded piles in natural marine sands.

This paper provides an overview of the PISA design model recently developed for laterally loaded offshore wind turbine monopiles through a major European joint-industry academic research project, the PISA Project. The focus was on large diameter, relatively rigid piles, with low length to diameter (L/D) ratios, embedded in clay soils of different strength characteristics, sand soils of different densities and in layered soils combining clays and sands. The resulting design model introduces new procedures for site specific calibration of soil reaction curves that can be applied within a one-dimensional (1D), Winkler-type, computational model. This paper summarises the results and key conclusions from PISA, including design methods for (a) stiff glacial clay till (Cowden till), (b) brittle stiff plastic clay (London clay), (c) soft clay (Bothkennar clay), (d) sand of varying densities (Dunkirk), and, (e) layered profiles (combining soils from (a) to (d)). The results indicate that the homogeneous soil reaction curves applied appropriately for layered profiles in the 1D PISA design model provide a very good fit to the three-dimensional finite element (3D FE) calculations, particularly for profiles relevant to current European offshore wind farm sites. Only a small number of cases, involving soft clay, very dense sand and L/D = 2 monopiles, would appear to require more detailed and bespoke analysis.

Geotechnical structures can be employed to provide renewable and cost-effective thermal energy to buildings. To date, limited field studies regarding thermo-active retaining walls exist and therefore their mechanical response under non-isothermal conditions requires further research to comprehend their behaviour. This paper investigates the response of a hypothetical thermo-active diaphragm wall by performing finite element analysis to characterise in detail its short and long term response. The soil-structure interaction mechanisms arising from the coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical nature of soil behaviour are for the first time identified and shown to be complex and highly non-linear. Subsequently, simpler modelling approaches are used to isolate and quantify the impact of the various identified mechanisms on the design of thermo-active retaining walls. It is concluded that simpler approaches tend to overestimate structural forces developing due to temperature changes in the retaining wall, while severely underestimating the associated ground movements, which are highly influenced by the development of thermally-induced excess pore water pressures. Furthermore, the results suggest that the behaviour of thermo-active retaining walls is highly transient in nature, as a result of the high rates of heat transfer and pore water pressure dissipation under plane strain assumptions.

Shallow geothermal energy systems, e.g. borehole heat exchangers or thermo-active structures, provide sustainable space heating and cooling by exchanging heat with the ground. When installed within densely built urban environments, the thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) interactions occurring due to changes in ground temperature, such as soil deformation and development of excess pore water pressures, may affect the mechanical behaviour of adjacent underground structures. This paper investigates the effects of vertical heat exchangers installed near a deep basement by performing fully coupled THM finite element analyses using the Imperial College Finite Element Program. Different heat exchanger configurations are considered and their influence on the response of the basement wall is assessed in two-dimensional plane strain analyses, where different methods of modelling the heat sources in this type of analysis are employed to evaluate their effect on the temperature field and the non-isothermal soil response.

An innovative specimen reconstitution technique for sandy and silty soils that simulates underwater deposition is presented and evaluated. The technique is an upgraded version for triaxial testing of the well-established slurry deposition method. This novel setup integrates the reconstitution mould and the mixing tube into a single unit to avoid transferring the sample from the mixing tube to the mould. This subtle, but critical, modification enables reconstitution of very loose specimens as sample transfer disturbance, which can be significant, is eliminated. The quality of specimens prepared by the new reconstitution method was assessed by experiments on a clean sand from the UK (Ham River sand) and a silty sand from Norway (Øysand). The method, as any slurry-based procedure, is capable of producing homogeneous specimens with high initial degree of saturation, even in the absence of back pressure. The procedure is shown to be suitable for sands with or without fines. Moreover, the new method is able to achieve a wide range of initial void ratios, from very loose to very dense, without imposing any particle crushing in the latter case.

The relative effects of dam–reservoir interaction on the dynamic response of concrete and earth dams are studied. The amplification of accelerations at the dam crest is explored under harmonic acceleration load. For certain cases of concrete dams the accelerations can be significantly affected by the upstream reservoir, whereas this influence is smaller for earth dams.

The accurate reproduction of the hysteretic behaviour exhibited by soils under cyclic loading is a crucial aspect of dynamic finite element analyses and is typically described using the concept of damping ratio. In this paper, a general algorithm is presented for assessing the damping ratio simulated by any constitutive model based on the registered behaviour in three-dimensional stress–strain space. A cyclic nonlinear elastic model capable of accurately reproducing a wide range of features of soil behaviour, including the variation of damping ratio with deformation level, is chosen to illustrate the capabilities of the proposed algorithm. The constitutive model is described and subsequently employed in two sets of finite element analyses, one involving the dynamic response of a sand deposit subjected to different types of motion and another focussing on the simulation of a footing subjected to cyclic vertical loading. The application of the presented algorithm provides insight into the processes through which energy is dissipated through hysteresis.

Buffer materials for nuclear waste disposal applications generally consist of blocks made of highly expansive compacted clay. However, high-density pellets of bentonite are being evaluated as an alternative buffer material for waste isolation. The material response of pellet-based buffers may be quite different from that of compacted buffers, because of the peculiar discontinuous porosity presented. An overview of the literature available on pellet-based buffers is presented and, in particular, two main topics are discussed: firstly, the characteristics of the fabric of the pellets that can be observed through techniques of micro-structural investigation, secondly, the most important behavioural features that can be seen during material testing. Additionally, the constitutive frameworks that have already been developed specifically for pellets are also reviewed. The overall objective of the paper is to highlight the differences between compacted and pellet-based bentonite buffers, in order to propose suitable assumptions to start developing a constitutive model for the latter.

The traditional use of shafts is that of simple geotechnical structures, built to provide direct access to the subsoil to either access existing facilities, or to provide a launch chamber for new excavations. More recently, shafts have been constructed with complex geometries and directly incorporated as part of a permanent basement or metro station. One such complex structure is the Ivens shaft in Lisbon, Portugal, which is yet to be built. The construction of this shaft represents a geotechnical challenge due to its complex shape and location in central Lisbon, surrounded by several historic buildings and having in its close vicinity the Baixa–Chiado metro station. This paper presents a sophisticated three-dimensional numerical simulation of the Ivens shaft construction, with a focus on assessing its effect on the existing buildings and the metro station and on the structural forces induced in its lining. The importance of integrating in the analysis the appropriate constitutive modelling of the different formations, the realistic initialisation of the ground conditions and the stiffness of the buildings, is discussed in detail. Although this is a class A prediction of a specific case study, it provides an insight into the general soil–structure interaction of a complex underground excavation.

Geotechnical structures, such as foundation piles, retaining walls and tunnel linings, are increasingly employed to produce geothermal energy for space heating and cooling. However, the exchange of heat between the structure and the ground induces additional structural forces and contributes to further structural and ground movements, which may affect the serviceability and stability of such structures. While numerous field and numerical studies exist regarding the response of geothermal piles, no investigations have been carried out to characterise the response of thermo-active shafts. This paper presents a numerical study of the short and long term behaviour of hypothetical thermo-active shafts through fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) finite element (FE) analyses using the Imperial College Finite Element Program (ICFEP), where the effect of changing the structure’s geometric characteristics is investigated.

Offshore foundation systems are constantly evolving to meet the needs of developments in the energy sector. These developments may be induced by the requirements of moving into ever deeper water for hydrocarbon recovery or creating foundation systems for renewable energy sources such as offshore wind farms. One such approach is that foundation systems are developed that combine several foundation elements to create a hybrid system. In this way it may be possible to develop a foundation system that is more efficient for the combination of vertical and lateral loads associated with the offshore environment, and in particular wind-powered generators. This paper presents the results from a physical and numerical modeling program undertaken to investigate the performance of hybrid, monopiled footing foundations under combined monotonic loading conditions in sand.

The mechanical response of unsaturated soils with significant amounts of active clay minerals can be highly stress path dependent. Traditionally, the Axis Translation Procedure has been used to study these materials in the laboratory. This technique, however, does not fully replicate conditions in the field, nor is it able to test soils during the important process of desaturation and resaturation. A novel osmotic oedometer has been developed at Imperial College London to test unsaturated soils under atmospheric pressure. With this equipment, it has been possible to continuously record changes in vertical and radial stress, gravimetric water content, degree of saturation, matrix suction, and void ratio, throughout a test. The Paper presents results from tests carried on samples of compacted London clay using the new oedometer and standard oedometers. The full data set gives an insight into the mechanical response of unsaturated expansive clay along complex stress paths. Results are interpreted using an existing framework for unsaturated expansive clays. Because of inherent limitations in the method of testing, some of the data needs to be interpreted with care. Nevertheless, the response recorded along different stress paths was found to be consistent and in agreement with framework predictions.

Vertical ground heat exchangers (VHEs), in the form of either Borehole Heat Exchanger (BHE) or thermo-active piles, are increasingly being deployed to provide low cost and sustainable heating and cooling to buildings. These are often installed within densely built urban environments, where adjacent foundation systems and underground structures can be affected by soil temperature changes induced by the heat exchangers. Therefore, they need to be considered in the geotechnical design of such structures, which typically involves carrying out two dimensional finite element plane strain analyses in order to assess their stability and performance. In such a scenario, it is common to model a line of heat exchangers as a planar source with one infinite dimension and a heat flux rate calculated by dividing the design extraction rate of a single heat exchanger by their spacing in the out-of-plane direction. This study shows that this approach largely overestimates the generated temperature field and proposes a simplified but accurate procedure to estimate the required heat flux to be applied to the planar heat sources in a 2D analysis. For this purpose, a correction factor, T ∗ , is introduced which is shown to depend on geometric parameters and thermal ground properties.

The multi-directional site response of a well-documented downhole array in Japan is numerically investigated with three directional (3-D) dynamic hydro-mechanically (HM) coupled Finite Element (FE) analysis. The paper discusses the challenges that 3-D modelling poses in the calibration of a cyclic nonlinear model, giving particular emphasis on the independent simulation of the shear and volumetric deformation mechanisms. The employed FE model is validated by comparing the predicted site response against the recorded motions obtained from the KiK-net downhole array monitoring system in Japan. The results show that, by employing the appropriate numerical model, a good agreement can be achieved between the numerical results and the monitored acceleration response in all three directions simultaneously. Furthermore, the comparison with the recorded response highlights the significance of the independent modelling of the shear and volumetric deformation mechanisms to the improvement of the numerical predictions of multi-directional site response.

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of dam–reservoir interaction onthe dynamic response of dams. Both thin rectangular concrete cantilever and large trapezoidal earth dams are considered with empty and full reservoir.It has recently been shown by Pelecanos et al. [32] that the amplification of accelerations at the crest of the dam depends on the combinations of the frequency of the harmonic acceleration load and the fundamental frequencies of the dam and the reservoir. This study considers transient dynamic loading and selected scenarios of different combinations of the abovementioned frequencies are examined under random seismic acceleration load.It is shown that for certain cases the amplification of accelerations of the dam can be affected by the presence of the upstream reservoir. In general, thin rectangular concrete cantilever dams are found to be considerably more sensitive to dam–reservoir interaction than large trapezoidal earth dams. Therefore, this investigation examines the significance of dam–reservoir interaction and when this interaction should be taken into consideration or it could be neglected.

This paper describes a calibration procedure for the double structure constitutive model ICDSM (Imperial College Double Structure Model), developed for highly expansive clays, when the model is applied to MX-80 bentonite. Firstly, the model calibration process is discussed and organised in a number of hierarchical steps. These steps involve the estimation of the macrostructural parameters that can be derived from oedometer, isotropic and triaxial laboratory data. Estimation of the microstructural parameters is more challenging due to the limited knowledge of an expansive clay’s fabric and of the physico-chemical phenomena that control its evolution upon wetting. Nevertheless, this paper discusses the available sources of data and identifies the appropriate information that is needed to characterise the micro-structural behaviour of the bentonite. Finally, through the simulation of a swelling pressure test on a bentonite plug, the hydration of the material is studied as a hydro-mechanical coupled process. Particular attention is devoted to the evolution of the stress state of the sample, which is compared to the experimental measurements in order to demonstrate that the constitutive model accurately reproduces the expansive behaviour of MX-80 bentonite.

Different forms of thermo-active structures have been proposed as a way of making use of the ground temperature to achieve renewable low-carbon heating and cooling in civil engineering construction. Such structures comprise piles, retaining walls or tunnel linings, and are used both as structural components and as conduits for utilising geothermal energy. In the scenario of the underground space in London, it is the thermo-active piles that have received most attention. However, little experimental evidence exists on the thermal behaviour of London clay to aid the design of thermo-active structures. This paper presents advanced laboratory testing on the reconstituted London clay to characterise the effect of temperature on its mechanical behaviour. Particular emphasis is given to thermally induced pore water pressures, as their evolution is not well understood. Tests are conducted in a temperature-controlled isotropic cell developed at Imperial College London. The emphasis of the current paper is on the temperature-based calibrations of different transducers. Soil specimens are isotropically consolidated and then subjected to undrained heating-cooling in the temperature range of 21 to 37 °C. Results obtained are compared with an existing laboratory study on another type of clay.

This paper provides a summary of the PIle Soil Analysis (PISA) project, completed in the UK during the period 2013 to 2018. The research led to the development of a new, computationally efficient, one dimensional design model for laterally loaded monopile foundations, particularly for offshore wind turbine support structures. The current form of the design model is applicable to monotonic loading only, but it could form a basis for extensions to cyclic loading. This short paper describes the background to the project, outlining the key research elements completed, as well as the main impacts that have been achieved. A number of publications describing the research in further detail are highlighted.

The necessity of accounting for small-strain behaviour of soils in numerical analyses of the serviceability limit states of geotechnical structures is well established both nationally and internationally. This has led to further development of appropriate soil constitutive models, as well as to further advances in accurate laboratory measurements of small-strain stiffness. The current paper considers recent laboratory research into the behaviour of London Clay, performed at Imperial College in conjunction with the major ground works for Heathrow Terminal 5 in London, UK. This research has shown the small-strain response of London Clay to be different to that assumed previously and in particular to that determined from good-quality commercial experiments. Both sets of small-strain stiffness data are applied in this paper in finite-element analyses of a deep excavation and a tunnel construction in London Clay, with the objective of investigating their effect on predicted ground movements.

This paper discusses several considerations related to appropriate numerical modelling of the reservoir hydrodynamic pressures on dams. The reservoir is modelled with 8-noded isoparametric displacement based solid finite elements. The study includes both stiff and flexible dams with vertical and sloped upstream faces under ramp, harmonic and random acceleration loads. The numerical results were compared and found to be in good agreement with available closed-form solutions. The same approach may be used in analyses of other waterfront structures such as quay walls.

Constitutive models for unsaturated soils are most commonly based on conventional critical state type models for saturated soils. The ellipse of the modified Cam-clay model is usually adopted for the formulation of the yield and the plastic potential surfaces in the mean stress – deviatoric stress plane. Despite the wide use of this ellipse it has long been shown that the peak deviatoric stress observed for highly overconsolidated states may be largely overestimated. For fully saturated conditions, a planar surface, termed the Hvorslev surface, has been employed in the literature in order to overcome this shortcoming on the dry side of the critical state. In addition, by employing a no-tension cut-off, stress states are restricted within the compressive region. In unsaturated conditions and due to the effect of suction the soil may be subjected to tensile total stresses which should not, however, exceed a model dependent limit. Nonetheless, adopting a planar surface and in the absence of any provision, illegal tensile stresses may be obtainable. For this reason, a new expression for the Hvorslev surface, which restricts the stress state within acceptable boundaries, is proposed, based on a small number of model parameters. The new surface is curved rather than planar and can also be used in combination with critical state type constitutive models developed for saturated conditions. The new surface is calibrated based on fully saturated undrained triaxial compression and extension tests and on unsaturated drained triaxial tests. The superiority of the new surface in comparison with commonly adopted shapes for the yield and the plastic potential functions – such as the ellipse and the bullet shape of the modified and the original Cam clay models – is demonstrated through numerical analyses of the unsaturated drained triaxial laboratory tests.