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In evaluative conditioning, if one shape (conditional stimulus [CS]; CSp) is paired with pleasant unconditional stimulus (US) images and another (CSu) is paired with unpleasant US images differential CS valence and US expectancy develops, such that participants evaluate the CSp as more pleasant and more predictive of pleasant images than the CSu. This conditional CS valence and US expectancy can be reduced in an extinction procedure in which the CSs are repeatedly presented alone. We investigated whether evaluative and expectancy learning is subject to relapse (spontaneous recovery, reinstatement, and renewal) after extinction in a picture-picture evaluative conditioning paradigm. In Stream 1, after acquisition and extinction, the spontaneous recovery test was completed after a delay. During the spontaneous recovery test, conditional expectancy learning, but not conditional evaluative learning, returned. In Stream 2, the US pictures were presented in a random stream after extinction (reinstatement manipulation) which led to the return of conditional evaluative and expectancy learning. In Stream 3, after acquisition training in Context A and extinction training in Context B, conditional expectancy and evaluative learning returned when participants completed the renewal test in the acquisition context (Context A; ABA renewal). Overall, the results suggest that conditional evaluative learning is subject to reinstatement and renewal, but not to spontaneous recovery, in a picture-picture evaluative conditioning paradigm.

While altered gaze behaviour during facial emotion recognition has been observed in autistic individuals, there remains marked inconsistency in findings, with the majority of previous research focused towards the processing of basic emotional expressions. There is a need to examine whether atypical gaze during facial emotion recognition extends to more complex emotional expressions, which are experienced as part of everyday social functioning. The eye gaze of 20 autistic and 20 IQ-matched neurotypical adults was examined during a facial emotion recognition task of complex, dynamic emotion displays. Autistic adults fixated longer on the mouth region when viewing complex emotions compared to neurotypical adults, indicating that altered prioritization of visual information may contribute to facial emotion recognition impairment. Results confirm the need for more ecologically valid stimuli for the elucidation of the mechanisms underlying facial emotion recognition difficulty in autistic individuals.

Pairing a conditional stimulus (CS) with an aversive unconditional stimulus (US) causes negative valence and US expectancy to generalize to stimuli that are perceptually and/or conceptually similar to the CS. Past research has shown that instructing participants that the US is more likely to follow stimuli that are dissimilar to the CS reversed the generalization of US expectancy but left generalized valence unchanged. Here, we examined whether instructions about the relationship between stimuli that are perceptually similar would affect the generalization of valence. A picture of an alien (CS+) was paired with an electric stimulus, while a perceptually different alien stimulus (CS–) was presented alone. After conditioning, valence, US expectancy, and electrodermal responses generalized to different aliens that were perceptually similar (by color and shape) to the CS+ and CS–. Participants were then instructed that aliens perceptually similar to the CS+ belonged to the same group as the CS‐ and that aliens perceptually similar to the CS– belonged to the same group as the CS+. The instructions caused an elimination (but not a reversal) of generalized expectancy and valence but did not affect generalized electrodermal responses. This suggests that evaluations of generalization stimuli are sensitive to instructions about their relationship to the CS and that dissociations reported in the literature between valence and expectancy after instructions may occur due to the type of instruction used. Past research has shown that instructions about the likelihood of the unconditional stimulus occurrence affect unconditional stimulus expectancy ratings during perceptually similar generalization stimuli but do not influence evaluations. In the current study, we demonstrate that instructions that change how the conditional and generalization stimuli are related affected generalized unconditional stimulus expectancy ratings and evaluations but did not affect electrodermal responding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion counter‐regulation has been suggested as the core cognitive mechanism of automatic emotion regulation. Emotion counter‐regulation not only induces an unintentional transfer of attention from the current emotional state to stimuli with the opposite valence but also prompts approach to stimuli of the opposite valence and increases response inhibition to stimuli of the same valence. Working memory (WM) updating has been shown to be related to attention selection and response inhibition. However, it remains unclear whether emotion counter‐regulation would affect WM updating with emotional stimuli. In the present study, 48 participants were recruited and randomly assigned to the angry‐priming group that watched highly arousing angry video clips, or the control group that watched neutral video clips. Then participants performed a two‐back face identity matching task with happy and angry face pictures. Behavioral results showed higher accuracy for identity recognition of happy than of angry faces. The event‐related potential (ERP) results revealed smaller P2 to angry faces than to happy faces in the control group. In the angry‐priming group, there was no difference in P2 amplitude between angry and happy trials. Between groups, P2 to angry faces was larger in the priming group than in the control group. Late positive potential (LPP) was smaller for happy faces than for angry faces in the priming group, but not in the control group. These findings suggest that emotion counter‐regulation affects the onset updating and maintenance of emotional face stimuli in WM. Impact Statement: Our findings extend the effect of emotion counter‐regulation from attention allocation and response inhibition to working memory updating. We provide evidence that emotion counter‐regulation of anger changed working memory updating by decreasing attention to angry faces in the early stage as well as by increasing needs of processing resources to maintain angry faces in the late stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Confusion is an emotion that is likely to occur while learning complex information. This emotion can be beneficial to learners in that it can foster engagement, leading to deeper understanding. However, if learners fail to resolve confusion, its effect can be detrimental to learning. Such detrimental learning experiences are particularly concerning within digital learning environments (DLEs), where a teacher is not physically present to monitor learner engagement and adapt the learning experience accordingly. However, with better information about a learner's emotion and behavior, it is possible to improve the design of interactive DLEs (IDLEs) not only in promoting productive confusion but also in preventing overwhelming confusion. This article reviews different methodological approaches for detecting confusion, such as self-report and behavioral and physiological measures, and discusses their implications within the theoretical framework of a zone of optimal confusion. The specificities of several methodologies and their potential application in IDLEs are discussed.

Mathematics anxiety is a significant barrier to mathematical learning. In this article, we propose that state or on-task mathematics anxiety impacts on performance, while trait mathematics anxiety leads to the avoidance of courses and careers involving mathematics. We also demonstrate that integrating perspectives from education, psychology and neuroscience contributes to a greater understanding of mathematics anxiety in its state and trait forms. Research from cognitive psychology and neuroscience illustrates the effect of state mathematics anxiety on performance and research from cognitive, social and clinical psychology, and education can be used to conceptualise the origins of trait mathematics anxiety and its impact on avoidant behaviour. We also show that using this transdisciplinary framework to consider state and trait mathematics anxiety separately makes it possible to identify strategies to reduce the negative effects of mathematics anxiety. Implementation of these strategies among particularly vulnerable groups, such as pre-service teachers, could be beneficial.

The present study examined the relationship between emotion malleability beliefs and daily positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) in adolescents. 639 participants provided information about emotion malleability beliefs and emotion regulation strategies on the first day of the study and six daily measurements of PA and NA. Emotion malleability beliefs had a positive relationship with PA and a negative relationship with NA. Higher emotion malleability beliefs predicted lower carryover effects of PA and NA across assessment days. We also found that cognitive reappraisal might affect the relationship between emotion malleability beliefs and daily affect, such that those who held high levels of malleability beliefs were more likely to engage in cognitive reappraisal and report lower NA and higher PA. The findings of the present study suggest that emotion malleability beliefs could predicate daily emotions and emotion dynamics across days in adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]