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Background: Achieving the 95-95-95 global targets by 2030, innovative HIV testing models, such as HIV self-testing are needed for people, who are unaware of their HIV status. We aimed to explore key informants, mountain climbing porters, and female bar workers' attitudes, perceived norms, and personal agency related to HIV self-testing., Methods: This was a formative qualitative study to inform the design of an HIV self-testing intervention in Northern Tanzania. Informed by the Integrated Behaviour Model, we conducted four focus group discussions, and 18 in-depth interviews with purposively selected participants. Data were analyzed using the framework method., Results: We recruited 55 participants. Most participants had positive attitudes towards HIVST, in that they anticipated positive consequences related to the introduction and uptake of HIVST. These included privacy and convenience, avoidance of long queues at health facilities, reduced counselor workload, and reduced indirect costs (given that transport to health facilities might not be required). Participants expressed the belief that significant people in their social environment, such as parents and peers, would approve their uptake of HIVST, and that they would accept HIVST. Additionally, features of HIVST that might facilitate its uptake were that it could be performed in private and would obviate visits to health facilities. Most participants were confident in their capacity to use HIVST kits, while a few were less confident about self-testing while alone. Strategies to maximize beliefs about personal agency and facilitate uptake included supplying the self-test kits in a way that was easy to access, and advocacy. Perceived potential constraints to the uptake of HIVST were the cost of buying the self-test kits, poverty, illiteracy, poor eyesight, fear of knowing one's HIV status, lack of policy/ guidelines for HIVST, and the absence of strategies for linkage to HIV care, treatment, and support., Conclusions: The findings suggest that HIVST may be feasible to implement in this study setting, with the majority of participants reporting positive attitudes, supportive perceived norms, and self-efficacy. Hence, future HIVST interventions should address the negative beliefs, and perceived barriers towards HIVST to increase HIV testing among the target population in Northern Tanzania.

Background: More than 40% of adults in Sub-Saharan Africa are unaware of their HIV status. HIV self-testing (HIVST) is a novel approach with a potential to increase uptake of HIV testing and linkage to care for people who test HIV positive. We explored HIV stakeholder's perceptions about factors that enable or deter the uptake of HIV self-testing and experiences of self-testing of adult users in Africa., Methods: This systematic review of qualitative evidence included articles on qualitative studies published or made available between January 1998 to February 2018 on perspectives of key stakeholders, including HIV policymakers, HIV experts, health care providers, and adult men and women (18 years and above) about factors that enable or deter the uptake of HIV self-testing and experiences of self-testing among adult users. We searched CINAHL, MEDLINE in Pubmed, EMBASE, AJOL, PsycINFO, Social Science Citation Index (SSCI), and Web of Science for articles in English on HIVST with qualitative data from different African countries., Results: In total, 258 papers were retrieved, and only nine (9) studies conducted in 5 African countries were eligible and included in this synthesis. Perceived facilitators of the uptake of HIVST were autonomy and self-empowerment, privacy, confidentiality, convenience, opportunity to test, including couples HIV testing, and ease of use. The perceived barriers included the cost of buying self-test kits, perceived unreliability of test results, low literacy, fear and anxiety of a positive test result, and potential psychological and social harms. HIV stakeholder's concerns about HIVST included human right issues, lack of linkage to care, lack of face-to-face counseling, lack of regulatory and quality assurance systems, and quality of self-test kits. Actual HIVST users expressed preference of oral-fluid self-testing because of ease of use, and that it is less invasive and painless compared to finger-stick/whole blood-based HIV tests. Lack of clear instructions on how to use self-test kits, and existing different products of HIVST increases rates of user errors., Conclusions: Overcoming factors that may deter HIV testing, and HIVST, in particular, is complex and challenging, but it has important implications for HIV stakeholders, HIVST users, and public health in general. Research is warranted to explore the actual practices related to HIVST among different populations in Africa.

Background: Measuring and monitoring progress towards Millennium Development Goals (MDG) 4 and 5 required valid and reliable estimates of maternal and child mortality. In South Africa, there are conflicting reports on the estimates of maternal and neonatal mortality, derived from both direct and indirect estimation techniques. This study aimed to systematically review the estimates made of maternal and neonatal mortality in the period from 1990 to 2015 in South Africa and determine trends over this period., Methods: Nationally-representative studies reporting on maternal and neonatal mortality in South Africa were included for synthesis. Literature search for eligible studies was conducted in five electronic databases: Medline, Africa-Wide Information, Scopus, Web of Science and CINAHL. Searches were restricted to articles written in English and presenting data covering the period between 1990 and 2015. Reference lists of retrieved articles were screened for additional publications, and grey literature was searched for relevant documents for the review. Three independent reviewers were involved in study selection, data extractions and achieving consensus., Results: In total, 969 studies were retrieved and 670 screened for eligibility yielding 25 studies reporting data on maternal mortality and 14 studies on neonatal mortality. Most of the studies had a low risk of bias. Estimates from the institutional reporting differed from the international metrics with wide uncertainty/confidence intervals. Moreover, modelled estimates were widely divergent from estimates obtained through empirical methods. In the last two decades, both maternal and neonatal mortality appear to have increased up to 2009, followed by a decrease, more pronounced in the care of maternal mortality., Conclusion: Estimates from both global metrics and institutional reporting, although widely divergent, indicate South Africa has not achieved MDG 4a and 5a goals but made a significant progress in reducing maternal and neonatal mortality. To obtain more accurate estimates, there is a need for applying additional estimation techniques which utilise available multiple data sources to correct for underreporting of these outcomes, perhaps the capture-recapture method., Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO CRD42016042769.

Background: The shortage of medical doctors in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has resulted in increased enrolment in medical schools, which has not been matched with increased faculty size or physical infrastructure. This process has led to overcrowding and possibly reduced quality of training. To reduce overcrowding at its teaching hospital, the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College introduced eight-week peripheral clerkship rotations in 2012. We explore students' perceptions and attitudes towards peripheral hospital placements., Method: The clerkship rotations were conducted in eight hospitals operating in the northern Tanzania, after evaluating each hospitals' capabilities and establishing the optimum number of students per hospital. Paper-based surveys were conducted after student rotations from 2014 to 2016., Results: Overall student satisfaction was moderate (strength of consensus measure (sCns), 77%). The three cohorts exhibited improving trends over three years with respect to satisfaction with clinical skills and attitude towards placements. student-preceptor interaction was rated highly (sCns 81-84%). The first cohort students expressed concerns about limited laboratory support, and poor access to Internet and learning resources. Specific interventions were undertaken to address these concerns., Conclusions: Student experiences in peripheral rotations were positive with adequate satisfaction levels. Opportunities exist for medical schools in SSA to enhance clinical training and relieve overcrowding through peripheral clerkship rotations., Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare., (© 2018 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.)

Background: Measuring and monitoring progress towards Millennium Development Goals (MDG) 4 and 5 requires valid and reliable estimates of maternal and neonatal mortality. In South Africa, there are conflicting reports on the estimates of maternal and neonatal mortality, derived from both direct and indirect estimation techniques. This study aims to systematically review the estimates made of maternal and neonatal mortality in the period from 1990 to 2015 in South Africa and determine trends over this period., Methods: For the purpose of this review, searches for eligible studies will be conducted in MEDLINE, Africa-Wide Information, African Index Medicus, African Journals Online, Scopus, Web of Science and CINAHL databases. Searches will be restricted to articles written in English and presenting data covering the period between 1990 and 2015. Reference lists of retrieved articles will also be screened for additional publications. Three independent reviewers will be involved in the study selection, data extractions and achieving consensus. Study quality and risk of bias will thereafter be assessed by two authors. The results will be presented as rates/ratio with their corresponding 95% confidence/uncertainty intervals., Discussion: Identifying trends in maternal and neonatal mortality will help to track progress in MDGs 4 and 5 and will serve in evaluating interventions focusing on reducing maternal and child mortality in the country. This study will, in particular, provide the context for understanding inconsistencies in reported estimates of maternal and neonatal mortality by considering estimation methods, data sources and definitions used., Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO CRD42016042769.

Background: Mal-distribution of health care workers is a global health challenge that exacerbates health disparities, especially in resource-limited settings. Interventions to mitigate the problem have targeted qualified personnel with little focus on medical students. However, studies have demonstrated that rural rotations positively influence students to practice in rural settings upon graduation. To evaluate the influence of peripheral rotations in a resource-limited setting, the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College introduced a 12-week clerkship rotation in peripheral hospitals for third-year medical (MD3) students in 2012. We administered an end-of-rotation survey to assess student perceptions, and attitudes toward rural practice after graduation., Methods: Questionnaires were voluntarily and anonymously administered to MD3 students in April 2014. The questions assessed perceptions of the experience, and attitudes towards rural practice upon graduation. The perceptions were assessed using strength of consensus measures (sCns). The effect of the experience on likelihood for rural practice was assessed using Crude Odds Ratio (COR), and predictors using Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) with 95 % Confidence Intervals (CI) tested at a 5 % level of significance. Variation was assessed using Hosmer and Lemeshow test Chi-square., Results: 111 out of 148 MD3 students participated; 62 % were male; 62 % <25 years old; and 72 % matriculated directly from secondary school. Overall, 81 % of MD3 students were satisfied with rural rotations (sCns = 83 %). The likelihood of accepting rural practice deployment after graduation was predicted by satisfaction with the peripheral hospital rotation program (AOR, 4.32; 95 % CI, 1.44-12.96; p, 0.009) and being male (AOR, 2.73; 95 % CI, 1.09-6.84; p, 0.032). Students admitted in medical school after health-related practice trended toward a higher likelihood of accepting rural practice after graduation compared to those enrolled directly from secondary school, although the difference was not significant (AOR, 4.99; 95 % CI, 0.88-28.41; p, 0.070). The Hosmer and Lemeshow test p-value was 0.686, indicating a good fit of the model. No significant differences in satisfaction between these two groups were observed, and also no significant differences between students born in rural areas compared to those born in urban areas existed., Conclusion: Results indicate that satisfaction with rural rotations is associated with increased likelihood of rural practice after graduation. We conclude that opportunities may exist to reduce mal-distribution of healthcare workers through interventions that target medical students.

The Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University (KCMU) College and the Medical Education Partnership Initiative (MEPI) are addressing the crisis in Tanzanian health care manpower by modernizing the college's medical education with new tools and techniques. With a $10 million MEPI grant and the participation of its partner, Duke University, KCMU is harnessing the power of information technology (IT) to upgrade tools for students and faculty. Initiatives in eLearning have included bringing fiber-optic connectivity to the campus, offering campus-wide wireless access, opening student and faculty computer laboratories, and providing computer tablets to all incoming medical students. Beyond IT, the college is also offering wet laboratory instruction for hands-on diagnostic skills, team-based learning, and clinical skills workshops. In addition, modern teaching tools and techniques address the challenges posed by increasing numbers of students. To provide incentives for instructors, a performance-based compensation plan and teaching awards have been established. Also for faculty, IT tools and training have been made available, and a medical education course management system is now being widely employed. Student and faculty responses have been favorable, and the rapid uptake of these interventions by students, faculty, and the college's administration suggests that the KCMU College MEPI approach has addressed unmet needs. This enabling environment has transformed the culture of learning and teaching at KCMU College, where a path to sustainability is now being pursued.

Background: Contemporary teaching in sub-Saharan African medical schools is largely through didactic and problem-based approaches. These schools face challenges from burgeoning student numbers, severe faculty shortages, faculty without instruction in teaching methods and severe infrastructure inadequacies. Team-based learning (TBL) is a pedagogy which may be attractive because it spares faculty time. TBL was piloted in a module on ectoparasites at the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College (KCMU Co.)., Methods: TBL orientation began six weeks before starting the module. Students were issued background readings and individual and group readiness assessment tests, followed by module application, discussion and evaluation. At completion, student perceptions of TBL were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale evaluating six domains, with a score of 5 being most favourable. Strength of consensus measures (sCns) was applied. Final examination scores were compiled for 2011 (didactic) and 2012 (TBL)., Results: About 158 students participated in the module. The mean student scores across the six domains ranged from 4.2 to 4.5, with a high degree of consensus (range 85-90%). The final examination scores improved between 2011 and 2012., Conclusions: KCMU Co. student perceptions of TBL were very positive, and final exam grades improved. These observations suggest future promise for TBL applications at KCMU Co. and potentially other schools.