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Membrane-bound fatty acid desaturase (FAD) gene family plays crucial roles in regulation of fatty acid (FA) compositions in plants. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important oilseed crop in the world; however, no comprehensive study on exploring the role of FAD family in relation to stress tolerance in sunflower has been performed yet. In this study, we identified 40 putative FAD genes in H. annuus (HaFAD), which were unevenly distributed across 13 of the total 17 chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that HaFAD genes were divided into four subfamilies, as supported by highly conserved gene structures and motifs. Collinearity analysis showed that tandem duplication events played a crucial role in the expansion of HaFAD gene family. In addition, tissue-specific expression showed that 32 HaFAD genes were widely expressed in various tissues or organs of sunflower. Furthermore, qRT-PCR results revealed significant expression changes of HaFAD genes in response to abiotic (cadmium, drought) and biotic (Orobanche cumana) stresses, suggesting their important functions in response to different stresses. Therefore, our results provide insights into HaFAD gene family in response to different stresses, and some specific up-regulated genes such as HaFAD3.2 , HaADS8 , HaFAD2.1 , and HaADS9 would be the potential candidate genes for the sunflower tolerance breeding. • A total of 40 FAD genes were identified in Helianthus annuus L. • Genome-wide characterization of FAD family was conducted in sunflower. • The heatmap of 32 HaFAD s in ten different tissues and organs was established. • 33 selected HaFAD s were differentially expressed under biotic and abiotic stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olfactomedin domain-containing proteins appear to facilitate neurodevelopment, cell adhesion, intercellular interactions, and protein–protein interactions, and the disruption of their expression will lead to dramatic developmental perturbations and lethality. The aim of the present work was to study how these genes evolved in metazoans and diverged after their duplication as well as to characterize their expression profiles and detrimental mutations. We conducted an exhaustive survey of olfactomedin domain-containing genes in genomic databases, identifying 235 olfactomedin-like (OLF) proteins in 29 representative species covering all the main metazoan lineages. Phylogenetic analyses allowed us to define nine different subfamilies of OLF genes, and subfamily IX, which specifically includes two immunoglobulin domains, was identified for the first time in arthropods. Functional divergence analysis suggested that the function of this arthropod-specific OLF subfamily might have diverged from that of other subfamilies. Expression pattern analysis of OLF genes in humans and rats showed that human OLF genes tended to be highly expressed in the brain, while rat OLF genes were inclined to be expressed in the ovary and brain. We used the SIFT and PolyPhen servers in dbNSFP to distinguish deleterious mutations from neutral mutations for each member of the OLF gene family. The results showed that OLFML2B contains the most destructive SNPs (up to 61), while none of the mutations in OLFM2, OLFM4 and LPHN2 were predicted to be harmful. Taken together, these findings may not only enhance understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of the OLF family but also aid future studies on OLF protein regulation of nervous system development and immune function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tyrosine kinases (TKs) play principal roles in regulation of multicellular aspects of the organism and are implicated in many cancer types and congenital disorders. The anole lizard has recently been introduced as a model organism for laboratory-based studies of organismal function and field studies of ecology and evolution. However, the TK family of anole lizard has not been systematically identified and characterized yet. In this study, we identified 82 TK-encoding genes in the anole lizard genome and classified them into 28 subfamilies through phylogenetic analysis, with no member from ROS and STYK1 subfamilies identified. Although TK domain sequences and domain organization in each subfamily were conserved, the total number of TKs in different species was much variable. In addition, extensive evolutionary analysis in metazoans indicated that TK repertoire in vertebrates tends to be remarkably stable. Phylogenetic analysis of Eph subfamily indicated that the divergence of EphA and EphB occurred prior to the whole genome duplication (WGD) but after the split of Urochordates and vertebrates. Moreover, the expression pattern analysis of lizard TK genes among 9 different tissues showed that 14 TK genes exhibited tissue-specific expression and 6 TK genes were widely expressed. Comparative analysis of TK expression suggested that the tissue specifically expressed genes showed different expression pattern but the widely expressed genes showed similar pattern between anole lizard and human. These results may provide insights into the evolutionary diversification of animal TK genes and would aid future studies on TK protein regulation of key growth and developmental processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterostyly is a common floral polymorphism, but the proteomic basis of this trait is still largely unexplored. In this study, self- and cross-pollination of L-morph and S-morph flowers and comparison of embryo sac development in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) suggested that lower fruit set from S-morph flowers results from stigma-pollen incompatibility. To explore the molecular mechanism underlying heterostyly development, we conducted isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) proteomic analysis of eggplant pistils for L- and S-morph flowers. A total of 5,259 distinct proteins were identified during heterostyly development. Compared S-morph flowers with L-morph, we discovered 57 and 184 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) during flower development and maturity, respectively. Quantitative real time polymerase chain reactions were used for nine genes to verify DEPs from the iTRAQ approach. During flower development, DEPs were mainly involved in morphogenesis, biosynthetic processes, and metabolic pathways. At flower maturity, DEPs primarily participated in biosynthetic processes, metabolic pathways, and the formation of ribosomes and proteasomes. Additionally, some proteins associated with senescence and programmed cell death were found to be upregulated in S-morph pistils, which may lead to the lower fruit set in S-morph flowers. Although the exact roles of these related proteins are not yet known, this was the first attempt to use an iTRAQ approach to analyze proteomes of heterostylous eggplant flowers, and these results will provide insights into biochemical events taking place during the development of heterostyly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins play essential regulatory roles in a variety of biological processes. These highly conserved proteins form a large transcription factor superfamily, and are commonly identified in large numbers within animal, plant, and fungal genomes. The bHLH domain has been well studied in many animal species, but has not yet been characterized in non-avian reptiles. In this study, we identified 102 putative bHLH genes in the genome of the green anole lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Based on phylogenetic analysis, these genes were classified into 43 families, with 43, 24, 16, 3, 10, and 3 members assigned into groups A, B, C, D, E, and F, respectively, and 3 members categorized as 'orphans'. Within-group evolutionary relationships inferred from the phylogenetic analysis were consistent with highly conserved patterns observed for introns and additional domains. Results from phylogenetic analysis of the H/E(spl) family suggest that genome and tandem gene duplications have contributed to this family's expansion. Our classification and evolutionary analysis has provided insights into the evolutionary diversification of animal bHLH genes, and should aid future studies on bHLH protein regulation of key growth and developmental processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Continuous monocropping can affect the physicochemical and biological characteristics of cultivated soil. Sophora flavescens is a valuable herbal medicine and sensitive to continuous monocropping. Currently, diversity patterns of soil microbial communities in soil continuous monocropping with S. flavescens have not been extensively elucidated. Results: In this study, comparative 16S rDNA and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) MiSeq sequencing analyses were used to examine the taxonomic community structure and microbial diversity in nonrhizosphere soil (CK) and rhizosphere soils (SCC, TCC, and FCC) sampled from fields that had undergone two, three, and five years of continuous monocropping, respectively. Among the microbial communities, a decreased abundance of Acidobacteria and increased abundances of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes were found with the increase in monocropping years of S. flavescens. As the continuous monocropping time increased, the diversity of the bacterial community decreased, but that of fungi increased. Redundancy analysis also showed that among the properties of the rhizosphere soil, the available phosphorus, organic matter, total nitrogen, and sucrase had the greatest impacts on the diversity of the rhizosphere microbial community. Moreover, a biomarker for S. flavescens soil was also identified using the most differentially abundant bacteria and fungi in soil samples. Conclusions: Our study indicates that long-term monocropping exerted great impacts on microbial community distributions and soil physicochemical properties. The relationship between microbial community and physicochemical properties of rhizosphere soil would help clarify the side effects of continuous S. flavescens monocropping. Our study may aid in uncovering the theoretical basis underlying obstacles to continuous monocropping and provide better guidance for crop production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A total of 119 WRKY genes were identified in Helianthus annuus L. • WRKYs present genetic diversity among oil crops. • Segmental and tandem duplications contribute to the expansion of sunflower WRKYs. • Expression analysis shows neo- or subfunctionalization after WRKY duplications. • Some HaWRKY genes play critical roles response to biotic and abiotic stresses. WRKY proteins constitute a large family of transcription factors that play important roles in many aspects of physiological processes and adaptation to environmental challenge. Although previous studies have identified and characterized WRKY genes from sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) expressed sequence tag and genomic databases, the phylogenetic diversity of WRKY repertoires of oil crop species and the responses of sunflower WRKY proteins to various stressors have not been elucidated. In this study, a total of 860 WRKY members from seven oil crop species, namely, sunflower, sesame, castor bean, soybean, canola, Arachis duranensis , and Arachis ipaensis , were subjected to comparative genomic analysis. Genetic diversity within the WRKY family among these oil crop species was revealed through pairwise comparisons of orthologous groups and phylogenetic analysis. Sequence features and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the WRKY genes of oil crop species belong to well-defined groups or subgroups, and different oil plant species exhibit obvious expansion or loss to different degrees. One hundred nineteen sunflower WRKY (HaWRKY) genes were found to be unevenly distributed across each chromosome. Segmental and tandem duplications contributed to the expansion of group II and III WRKY genes in sunflower, respectively. The duplicated genes generally exhibit divergent expression patterns, which may indicate that neofunctionalization or subfunctionalization of these genes tends to occur after duplication. Moreover, expression profiles derived from transcriptomic data exhibited distinct expression patterns of HaWRKY genes in various tissues and in response to different stress treatments, including hormone treatments, salt and drought stress, infection by the fungus Verticillium dahliae , and colonization by the fungus Rhizoglomus irregulare. According to these results, WRKY genes may be involved in the strong adaptability of sunflower to various environments, thereby contributing to the importance of sunflower as a widely cultivated oil resource. This systematic analysis provides a foundation for further functional characterization of WRKY genes among oil crop species for the improvement of stress resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) residue as a crop culture substrate has unique advantages in alleviating the obstacles associated with continuous monocropping, such as increasing production, improving quality and alleviating pests and diseases. However, the effect of TCM residue application on substrates in continuous monocropping practices has not been determined. In this study, the cucumber variety "Jinyou No. 10" was used as the material, and fermented TCM residue, vermiculite and perlite were used as organic substrates (3:1:1). The cucumbers were cultivated on substrates for different durations of continuous monocropping, which were the first cropping cycle (A1), second cropping cycle (A2), third cropping cycle (A3) and fourth cropping cycle (A4). The control (A0) was the substrate sample without any crop planted in it. After the cucumbers were harvested, substrate samples (areas around the cucumber roots) were collected. The physiochemical properties of the cultivated substrates were determined, and the microbial community structures were analyzed through 16S rRNA and ITS sequencing. The physiochemical indices of the substrates with different durations of continuous monocropping (A1–A4) were significantly different than those of the control (A0) substrate. Moreover, the continuous cropping of cucumber had greater effects on fungal communities than on bacterial communities. Bacterial community structure analysis revealed a greater proportion of important bacterial taxa (Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Nitrospirae) in the continuous monocropping substrates than in the A0 substrate. For the fungal community, Ascomycota accounted for the largest percentage of the fungal community in all the samples. The diversity of the microbial community was found to be influenced primarily by electrical conductivity, organic matter content, pH and total potassium content according to the correlation analysis of physicochemical properties and relative abundance of the microbial community. Our study would provide a basis for addressing persistent challenges in continuous cropping and for obtaining the utmost benefit from using TCM organic residue waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tyrosine kinases (TKs) play key roles in the regulation of multicellularity in organisms and involved primarily in cell growth, differentiation, and cell-to-cell communication. Genome-wide characterization of TKs has been conducted in many metazoans; however, systematic information regarding this superfamily in Electrophorus electricus (electric eel) is still lacking. In this study, we identified 114 TK genes in the E electricus genome and investigated their evolution, molecular features, and domain architecture using phylogenetic profiling to gain a better understanding of their similarities and specificity. Our results suggested that the electric eel TK (EeTK) repertoire was shaped by whole-genome duplications (WGDs) and tandem duplication events. Compared with other vertebrate TKs, gene members in Jak, Src, and EGFR subfamily duplicated specifically, but with members lost in Eph, Axl, and Ack subfamily in electric eel. We also conducted an exhaustive survey of TK genes in genomic databases, identifying 1674 TK proteins in 31 representative species covering all the main metazoan lineages. Extensive evolutionary analysis indicated that TK repertoire in vertebrates tended to be remarkably conserved, but the gene members in each subfamily were very variable. Comparative expression profile analysis showed that electric organ tissues and muscle shared a similar pattern with specific highly expressed TKs (ie, epha7, musk, jak1, and pdgfra), suggesting that regulation of TKs might play an important role in specifying an electric organ identity from its muscle precursor. We further identified TK genes exhibiting tissue-specific expression patterns, indicating that members in TKs participated in subfunctionalization representing an evolutionary divergence required for the performance of different tissues. This work generates valuable information for further gene function analysis and identifying candidate TK genes reflecting their unique tissue-function specializations in electric eel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tyrosine kinases (TKs) play key roles in the regulation of multicellularity in organisms and involved primarily in cell growth, differentiation, and cell-to-cell communication. Genome-wide characterization of TKs has been conducted in many metazoans; however, systematic information regarding this superfamily in Electrophorus electricus (electric eel) is still lacking. In this study, we identified 114 TK genes in the E electricus genome and investigated their evolution, molecular features, and domain architecture using phylogenetic profiling to gain a better understanding of their similarities and specificity. Our results suggested that the electric eel TK (EeTK) repertoire was shaped by whole-genome duplications (WGDs) and tandem duplication events. Compared with other vertebrate TKs, gene members in Jak, Src, and EGFR subfamily duplicated specifically, but with members lost in Eph, Axl, and Ack subfamily in electric eel. We also conducted an exhaustive survey of TK genes in genomic databases, identifying 1674 TK proteins in 31 representative species covering all the main metazoan lineages. Extensive evolutionary analysis indicated that TK repertoire in vertebrates tended to be remarkably conserved, but the gene members in each subfamily were very variable. Comparative expression profile analysis showed that electric organ tissues and muscle shared a similar pattern with specific highly expressed TKs (ie, epha7, musk, jak1, and pdgfra), suggesting that regulation of TKs might play an important role in specifying an electric organ identity from its muscle precursor. We further identified TK genes exhibiting tissue-specific expression patterns, indicating that members in TKs participated in subfunctionalization representing an evolutionary divergence required for the performance of different tissues. This work generates valuable information for further gene function analysis and identifying candidate TK genes reflecting their unique tissue-function specializations in electric eel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Salvia castanea evolved the special underground stem with "trunk-branches" developmental pattern. • Significantly expanded and contracted OGGs, SSGs, and PSGs contribute to morphogenesis and QTP adaptation of S. castanea. • Tomenta of leaves and periderm of underground stem are like armors protecting S. castanea against QTP environment. • Secondary metabolites mainly RA and T-IIA realize the functions of armors. • NAC29 and TGA22 were identified as key TFs involved in regulating T-IIA and RA biosynthesis. Salvia castanea , a wild plant species is adapted to extreme Qinghai-Tibetan plateau (QTP) environments. It is also used for medicinal purposes due to high ingredient of tanshinone IIA (T-IIA). Despite its importance to Chinese medicinal industry, the mechanisms associated with secondary metabolites accumulation (i.e. T-IIA and rosmarinic acid (RA)) in this species have not been characterized. Also, the role of special underground tissues in QTP adaptation of S. castanea is still unknown. We explored the phenomenon of periderm-like structure in underground stem center of S. castanea with an aim to unravel the molecular evolutionary mechanisms of QTP adaptation in this species. Morphologic observation and full-length transcriptome of S. castanea plants were conducted. Comparative genomic analyses of S. castanea with other 14 representative species were used to reveal its phylogenetic position and molecular evolutionary mechanisms. RNA-seq and WGCNA analyses were applied to understand the mechanisms of high accumulations of T-IIA and RA in S. castanea tissues. Based on anatomical observations, we proposed a "trunk-branches" developmental model to explain periderm-like structure in the center of underground stem of S. castanea. Our study suggested that S. castanea branched off from cultivated Danshen around 16 million years ago. During the evolutionary process, significantly expanded orthologous gene groups, 24 species-specific and 64 positively selected genes contributed to morphogenesis and QTP adaptation in S. castanea. RNA-seq and WGCNA analyses unraveled underlying mechanisms of high accumulations of T-IIA and RA in S. castanea and identified NAC29 and TGA22 as key transcription factors. We proposed a "trunk-branches" developmental model for the underground stem in S. castanea. Adaptations to extreme QTP environment in S. castanea are associated with accumulations of high secondary metabolites in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• 50 Dof family genes were identified in sunflower. • Four groups and further nine subfamilies were classified for sunflower Dof genes. • Segmental duplications contribute to expansion of sunflower Dof genes. • HaDof genes may be involved in hormone response and abiotic stress resistance. DNA binding with one finger (Dof), plant-specific zinc finger transcription factors, can participate in various physiological and biochemical processes during the life of plants. As one of the most important oil crops in the world, sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) has significant economic and ornamental value. However, a systematic analysis of H. annuus Dof (HaDof) members and their functions has not been extensively conducted. In this study, we identified 50 HaDof genes that are unevenly distributed on 17 chromosomes of sunflower. We present a comprehensive overview of the HaDof genes, including their chromosome locations, phylogenetic analysis, and expression profile characterization. Phylogenetic analysis classified the 366 Dof members identified from 11 species into four groups (further subdivided into nine subfamilies). Segmental duplications are predominantly contributed to the expansion of sunflower Dof genes, and all segmental duplicate gene pairs are under purifying selection due to strong evolutionary constraints. Furthermore, we observed differential expression patterns for HaDof genes in normal tissues as well as under hormone treatment or abiotic stress conditions by analyzing RNA-seq data from previous studies and RT-qPCR data in our current study. The expression of HaDof04 and HaDof43 were not detected in any samples, which implied that they may be gradually undergoing pseudogenization process. Some HaDof genes, such as HaDof25 and HaDof30 , showed responsiveness to exogenous plant hormones, such as kinetin, brassinosteroid, auxin or strigolactone, while others like HaDof15 and HaDof35 may participate in abiotic stress resistance of sunflower seedling. Our study represents the initial step towards understanding the phylogeny and expression characterization of sunflower Dof family genes, which may provide valuable reference information for functional studies on hormone response, abiotic stress resistance, and molecular breeding in sunflower and other species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A total of 722 metabolites were identified in the seeds of eight buckwheat varieties. • 84 key active ingredients and 78 active pharmaceutical ingredients were identified. • Tartary and common buckwheat differ in metabolite composition. • 155 and 48 biomarkers were identified in Tartary and common buckwheat, respectively. • Tartary buckwheat is a promising source with higher health-promoting value. Tartary buckwheat has higher health-promoting value than common buckwheat. However, the related metabolites information except flavonoids is largely deficient. Here, we compared the seed metabolomes of the two species using a UHPLC-QqQ-MS-based metabolomics approach. In total, 722 metabolites were obtained, of which 84 and 78 were identified as the key active ingredients of Traditional Chinese Medicines and the active pharmaceutical ingredients for six major diseases-resistance, respectively. Comparative analysis showed there were obviously difference in metabolic profiles between the two buckwheat species, and further found 61 flavonoids and 94 non-flavonoids metabolites displayed significantly higher contents (≥2 fold) in Tartary buckwheat than in common buckwheat. Our results suggest that Tartary and common buckwheat seeds are rich in metabolites beneficial to human health, and non-flavonoids metabolites also contributed to Tartary buckwheat's higher health-promoting value than common buckwheat. This study provides valuable information for the development of new functional foods of Tartary buckwheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors play important roles in many processes such as plant growth, metabolism and response to biotic/abiotic stresses. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is a major oil crop, cultivated throughout the world. However, no systematic characterization of bHLH gene members in sunflower (HabHLH) and their functions involved in drought, cadmium tolerance and Orobanche cumana resistance has been reported yet. In this study, 183 HabHLH genes were identified and named according to their chromosomal locations. We classified these proteins into 21 subfamilies by phylogenetic tree analysis. Subsequently, DNA-binding patterns, sequence analysis, duplication analysis and gene structures were analyzed. All of the HabHLH genes were randomly distributed on 17 chromosomes, and 10 pairs of tandem duplicated genes and one pair of segmental duplicated genes were detected in the HabHLH family. Among the duplicated gene pairs, eight pairs of HabHLH genes suffer from positive selection. Moreover, qRT-PCR results revealed significant up-regulated expression of HabHLH024 gene in response to both abiotic (cadmium, drought) and biotic (Orobanche cumana) stresses, suggesting its important functions in response to different stresses. Therefore, HabHLH024 would be the potential candidate gene for the sunflower tolerance breeding. [Display omitted] • A total of 183 bHLH genes were identified in Helianthus annuus L. • There were 21 bHLH subfamilies defined in sunflower. • Tandem duplications contribute to expansion of HabHLH genes. • 56 selected HabHLH s were differentially expressed under biotic and abiotic stresses. • HabHLH024 highly expressed under cadmium, drought, and Orobanche cumana stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild relatives represent a source of variation for many traits of interest for eggplant (Solanum melongena) breeding, as well as for broadening its genetic base. However, interspecific hybridization with wild relatives has been barely used in eggplant breeding programs, and reproductive barriers have resulted in reduced seed numbers in interspecific combinations. The mechanism underlying this phenomenon remains unclear. We hybridized females of cultivated eggplant 177 (Solanum melongena) with males of wild relatives 53 and Y11 (Solanum aethiopicum). Self-crossed 177 was the control. The seed number per control fruit was significantly higher than that of the hybrids. Paraffin sections showed no significant difference between control and 177×53 and 177×Y11. Double fertilization began 4 days post-pollination. Sperm cells were fused with egg cells 6 days post-pollination. To understand the differences in molecular mechanisms underlying this process, transcriptomes of ovaries at 0, 4, and 6 days after self-crossing and hybridization were analyzed. We screened 22,311 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the control and hybrids 4 and 6 days post-pollination. A total of 497 DEGs were shared among all pollination combinations. These DEGs were enriched in plant hormone transduction, cell senescence, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathways. DEG clustering analysis indicated distinct expression patterns between the control and hybrids but not between the hybrids. The DEGs in hybrids involved secondary metabolic process, phenylpropanoid metabolic process, and carboxypeptidase activity, while those in the control involved xyloglucan metabolic process, auxin-activated signaling pathway, cell wall polysaccharide metabolic process, and xyloglucosyl transferase activity. Additionally, 1683 transcription factors, including members of the AP2-ERF, MYB, bHLH, and B3 families may play important roles in self-crossing and hybridization. Our results provide insights into the regulatory mechanisms underlying variations between ovaries of self-crossed and hybrid eggplants and a basis for future studies on crossbreeding Solanum and genetic mechanisms underlying double fertilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The thermal degradation of Cy3G in nitrogen over 30–600 °C occurs in three steps. • The phenols and furans in the pyrolysis products of Cy3G are toxic to some extent. • For safety, anthocyanin-rich foods should be processed at below 100 °C. • High-temperature processing of anthocyanin-rich foods produces toxic substances. The thermal degradation behavior of cyanidin-3-O-gluoside (Cy3G) in nitrogen and air was studied using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), thermogravimetry–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TG-FTIR) and pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS). The results show that the thermal degradation of Cy3G in nitrogen and in air can be divided into three steps. The total degradation rate was 63.09% in nitrogen and 99.42% in air, and the total activation energy (E a) was 65.85 and 80.98 kJ·mol−1, respectively. The TG-FTIR analysis showed that Cy3G is significantly decomposed at 200–300 °C. The Py-GCMS analysis shows that the first step in the thermal degradation of Cy3G in nitrogen is the cleavage of glycosidic bonds to give cyanidin and glucoside. The glucoside and cyanidin then degrade further to give mainly low molecular weight compounds, together with furan derivatives, pyran derivatives and aromatic compounds. The phenols and furans found in the pyrolysis products are known to have a degree of toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CONSTANS-like (COL) genes play crucial roles in the regulation of photoperiodic flowering and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses; however, COL genes in sunflower (HaCOL) have not been extensively studied. In the present study, we identified 22 putative HaCOL genes in the whole genome sequence of sunflower, which were unevenly distributed on 10 chromosomes. The phylogenetic analysis showed that the HaCOLs could be divided into three well-defined groups (groups I, II and III). Group III had the highest number of COL genes among the three tested monocots, while the highest number of COL genes were observed in group I among the five tested dicots. Among all eight species, group II had the fewest COL family members. Segmental duplications contributed greatly to the expansion of this gene family. Furthermore, 11 tissue expression profiles of 22 HaCOL genes were analyzed through RNA-seq, which displayed their tissue-specific expression profiles. In addition, the expression levels of these HaCOL genes were analyzed under hormone, cadmium (Cd), heat, and drought stresses, and the results showed that HaCOL3 , HaCOL6 , and HaCOL19 were more sensitive than other HaCOLs to certain abiotic stresses. Moreover, the duplicated genes conferred important neofunctionalization in response to abiotic stresses. On the basis of our findings, we speculate that this conserved, duplicated and neofunctionalized COL gene family may play pivotal roles in the adaptation of sunflower to adverse environments. • A total of 22 putative CONSTANS-like genes identified in sunflower genome. • Sunflower CONSTANS-like genes could be divided into three well defined groups. • Segmental duplications contribute greatly to the expansion of this gene family. • Duplicated genes confer their novel functions in response to abiotic stresses. • The neofunctionalized sunflower COLs involved in environmental adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Root flavonoid contents were higher in triennial S. flavescens than biennial S. flavescens. • Taproot and lateral root expression profiles were clustered by cultivation period. • Genes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis in S. flavescens were identified. • Transcription factors are involved in flavonoid biosynthesis in S. flavescens. Flavonoids are a primary bioactive component of Sophora flavescens , which is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. Understanding flavonoid biosynthesis is of great importance for improving the production of active compounds. In this study, both the total flavonoid content and the contents of six main flavonoid (namely, genistin, trifolirhizin, maackiain, kushenol I, kurarinone, and nor-kurarinone) were significantly higher in triennial S. flavescens than in biennial plants, and the flavonoid content of lateral roots was higher than that of taproots. We attempted to generate exhaustive molecular information on the flavonoid secondary metabolite pathway and to increase the genomic resources for S. flavescens. De novo transcriptome data provided 643,251 unigenes, and 365,572 (56.83 %) were successfully annotated in five public protein databases. The gene expression profiles of taproots and lateral roots clustered with each other and were separated by the cultivation period; the other expression profiles were clustered according to tissue pattern. The differentially expressed unigenes (DEGs) in the lateral roots, taproots and stems between biennial and triennial S. flavescens were identified and subjected to functional annotation enrichment. A total of 92 unigenes encoding well-known enzymes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis were found to show differential expression between biennial and triennial S. flavescens. Furthermore, the comparative expression results of eight unigenes were validated by real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR). The most abundant transcription factors (TFs) that were differentially expressed in S. flavescens were those belonging to the bHLH-, NAC-, ERF- and MYB-related families, and these TFs were identified regardless of the tissue or cultivation period. Our study provides important resources of gene sequences and expression and insights into the molecular mechanism of flavonoid biosynthesis during S. flavescens cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]