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The determinants of generalized imitation of manual gestures were investigated in 1- to 2-year-old infants. Eleven infants were first trained eight baseline matching relations; then, four novel gestures that the infants did not match in probe trials were selected as target behaviors. Next, in a generalized imitation test in which matching responses to baseline models were intermittently reinforced, but matching responses to target models were not eligible for reinforcement, the infants matched baseline models but not the majority of their target behaviors. To ensure their failure to match the target behaviors was not due to motor constraints, the infants were trained, in a multiple-baseline procedure, to produce the target responses under stimulus control that did not include an antecedent model of the target behavior. There was no evidence of generalized imitation in subsequent tests. When the infants were next trained to match each target behavior to criterion (tested in extinction) in a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors procedure, only 2 infants continued to match all their targets in subsequent tests; the remaining infants matched only some of them. Seven infants were next given mixed matching training with the target behaviors to criterion (tested in extinction); they subsequently matched these targets without reinforcement when interspersed with trials on which matching responses to baseline models were intermittently reinforced. In repeat tests, administered at 3-week intervals, these 7 children (and 2 that did not take part in mixed matching training) continued to match most of their target behaviors. The results support a trained matching account, but provide no evidence of generalized imitation, in 1- to 2-year-old infants. (Contains 3 tables and 7 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to examine elite youth athletes' knowledge, perceptions, and understanding of sport psychology, psychological characteristics, and psychological skills. To address this purpose an interpretive description methodology was employed. Data were collected through five focus groups with 34 elite youth swimmers, triathletes, and athletes (aged 13–20 years). Following each focus group, the recordings were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis. The first theme labeled perceptions, knowledge, and experiences of sport psychology encompassed athletes' current and future perceptions of sport psychology as well as the factors impacting on athletes' perceptions of sport psychology. The second theme was psychological characteristics for success in elite sport, which included athletes' perceptions of the characteristics held by other elite athletes as well as the development of their own characteristics. The final theme accounted for the psychological skills deemed necessary for success in elite sport. Overall, the findings provide an insight into youth athletes' varying perceptions of sport psychology, as well as their limited knowledge and understanding of key psychological considerations for sport. Lay Summary: Focus groups were used to explore the perception and understanding of sport psychology of elite youth athletes involved in swimming, athletics, and triathlon. Overall perceptions of sport psychology were varied, with multiple factors impacting upon them including the use and understanding of sport psychology, as well as coaches' perceptions. Athletes should be provided with the opportunity to be educated on the benefits of sport psychology from a young age, so that as they progress they are aware of what it is, how it can be of use, and when they might choose to use it. Athletes would also benefit from being taught about the variety of characteristics that elite athletes possess and the available psychological skills that are commonly used to enhance performance. In addition to educating athletes, it could be beneficial for national governing bodies to also educate coaches around the topic of sport psychology given their influence on athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]