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This study was designed to evaluate the performance of current formulations of three types of laundry detergents in soft (60 ppm) and hard (172 ppm) water using home laundry equipment. Standard loads were washed with two brands from each of three types of detergents (phosphate-built and carbonate-built granular, and unbuilt liquid) to measure soil removal, soil deposition, and carbonate deposition. For the 5 replications of the soil removal test, swatches of soiled test cloth in 100% cotton, 50% cotton/50% polyester with no finish, and 50% cotton/50% polyester with permanent press finish were used. Untreated swatches of the same fabrics were used for the 10 replications of the soil deposition test and soil was introduced via a solution of Bandy black research clay and hot water. Swatches of the test cloth were attached to items in the test load. Carbonate deposition was observed after 5, 10, and 15 washings of a load composed of nine dark blue items (three 100% cotton terry washcloths, three men's 100% cotton T-shirts, and three boy's 50% cotton/50% polyester sport shirts) plus sufficient filler cloths of unbleached muslin to complete the load. Numerous significant interactions indicate that the results are not clear cut. However, the following conclusions were reached. The unbuilt liquid detergent was most effective in soil removal, especially in hard water, and the carbonate-built granular product was least effective. The phosphate detergent was the best of the three types in holding soil in suspension. Soil deposition increased with the number of washings and the increase was greater in hard water than in soft water. The appearance of "tattletale gray", which results as suspended soil is deposited on fabrics, was most noticeable for fabrics of untreated 100% cotton. Carbonate deposition was more apparent in hard water than in soft, but the buildup of the white precipitate occurred in both soft and hard water. Deposition of the carbonate precipitate was progressive and occurred at a faster rate in hard water than in soft. Items washed in hard water felt harsher than those washed in soft water, and the presence of the precipitate was more noticeable in areas with irregular surface texture or thickness. Detergent formulations change frequently and the differences in detergent types are becoming increasingly blurred. Therefore, when purchasing and using laundry detergents, consumers need to be aware of the properties of their water supply, laundry detergent, and washing machine, plus the articles to be washed, including types of soil. Laundering clothes is a complex process; satisfactory results depend on appropriate combinations of variables in the laundry system. At present, unbuilt liquid products are a practical and effective alternative to phosphate-built laundry detergents.

Economic uncertainty and heightened competition for money among nonprofits has necessitated more efficient and effective resource development programs. Despite the many significant contributions of female donors, women's philanthropy has been largely unrecognized. Women have been left out of the majority of research on philanthropy, thus traditional male-based models of fundraising may not translate well with female prospects because of gender differences in giving. This study examined motivating factors that led women to donate to nonprofit organizations, specifically the Virginia 4-H program. The study explored 32 female donors' motivations for giving, factors that impacted their satisfaction with giving, and motivating factors that resulted in repeat donations and giving at higher levels. The qualitative methodology combined focus groups and a validation questionnaire to determine themes that explain the multi-faceted nature of fundraising and the complexity of exploring and understanding female donor behavior. Results of this study are consistent with the six Cs of female philanthropy as proposed by Shaw and Taylor (1995), and findings corroborate other literature on female philanthropy. Expanding the six Cs to include compassion and community may provide more definitive answers to motivational factors impacting female philanthropy. Knowledge of these variables will enable the Virginia 4-H Foundation Board of Directors to refine development efforts by implementing a development plan that respects altruistic characteristics of both men and women. Additionally, the findings contribute to the growing literature on female donors, an acknowledged need. Ph. D.

This research considers the connections between appearance and identity apparent in the social experience of five gay male drag queens. Appearing at variance with gender norms that underwrite male appearance in mainstream society and among gay men prompted social consequences that impacted their identities and world views. One aim is to apprehend the experiences of difference that drag appearance manifest and expressed. Another aim is to gain a new perspective on the social construction of gendered appearances from marginalized persons who seem to look from the "outside" in toward mainstream social appearances and relations. Qualitative analysis relied on interview data and occurred using grounded theory methodology. However, analysis gained focus and intensified by engaging Stone's (1970) theorizing on "Appearance and the Self," Feminist articulations of "the gaze" and poststructural conceptions of the discursively constituted person as "the subject." This research especially emphasizes the points of connection between Stone's theorizing and more recent feminist theoretical advancements on the gaze as they each pertain to appearance, identity and social operations of seeing and being seen. Yet there is also consideration of the manners in which gendered appearance norms circulate in discourse and permeate the individual psyche. The research findings also locate social consequences of transgressing male appearance norms. These drag queens' interviews revealed that they used appearance to visibly portray gendered identities. Manners in which they related their drag appearances to the self were suggestive that gender identities are states of consciousness stemming from one's imagined connections to mass cultural conceptions of male and/or female. Where most people seem to commit themselves exclusively to male or female appearance repertoires and identity sets, these men indicated that they made both male and female identifications. These mixed identifications, which could have remained hidden, materialized when they did drag. In a sense, by doing drag, they performed their gender ambivalence. Their drag appearances were meta-performances that referred both to their own ambivalence with the gender binary, and to how appearance assists in constructing, maintaining and communicating (i.e., performing) status quo gendered identities. Ph. D.

South Korea is a country that is poor in natural resources and capital and remains behind many other nations in technological development; however, South Korea's unique development strategy has led its economy to high growth over the last three decades. During 1997, South Korea began to experience a serious financial crisis, including bankruptcies of many of its conglomerates, a drastic depreciation in the international exchange rate of the South Korean currency, and an increasing foreign debt. Currently South Korea is struggling to compete with products from both industrialized nations and newly industrializing nations. The current crisis has occurred as South Korea has been engaged in extensive market-opening. Knowledge is lacking about South Korea's intricate and rapidly changing political and economic climate. The purpose of this research was to explore and clarify the interrelated factors that have contributed to South Korea's present economic problems, especially those facing South Korea's retailing industry. The qualitative methodology of "grounded theory" was used in this study. Grounded theory is a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data which are systematically gathered and analyzed. Theory evolves during the research process through a continuous interplay between analysis and data collection. This research attempted to discover the factors, or themes, that have affected the South Korean economy and retailing industry. The following factors were identified: (1) foreign direct investment; (2) the price-gap between imported goods and domestic products; (3) South Korea's trade deficit; (4) perceived over-consumption of luxury items by South Korean consumers; and (5) the chaebol, or South Korean large conglomerates. The economic factors that have led to the current difficulties facing the South Korean retailing market are complicated and interwoven. South Korean retailers will have to address these factors in the future, and attempt to find solutions. It is hoped that the knowledge resulting from this will be of benefit to South Korea's attempt to compete in a global marketplace. Master of Science

The purpose of this study was to identify the extent of adoption of microwave ovens by older adults in Blacksburg, Virginia. Level of adoption was defined and determined as a function of 1) frequency of use of the microwave oven in comparison to the range, and 2) complexity of food preparation. Mere ownership was not considered as an indicator of adoption. Focusing on the final stage of Rogers theory of adoption (1962), three levels of adoption were determined: High, medium, and low. A random sample of 75 adults 65 years and older was selected from the listing of retired personnel in the 1997-98 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University faculty and staff directory. Telephone interviews were conducted to collect information regarding current microwave oven usage patterns and decisions for future use and purchase. Relationships between level of adoption, and user characteristics and microwave oven characteristics were statistically tested. Results from the study indicate that 56% of these older adults who own a microwave oven are high adopters; i.e. they used the microwave more than the range and performed high complexity tasks. About 52% reported using the microwave oven more frequently than the range. Nearly all respondents were satisfied with the microwave oven in terms of speed and convenience, while 60% were satisfied with quality of foods cooked in the microwave oven. There was no significant difference in level of adoption with age, gender, health condition, and knowledge of microwave oven use. However, level of adoption was significantly higher among older adults who were "never" married or "previously" married compared to those that were "currently" married. Also, level of adoption was significantly lower among those older adults who had touch controls on their microwave oven compared to those with rotary dials. Other significant results of this study dealt with future use and purchase decisions. About 93% of the respondents indicated a desire to continue using a microwave oven in the future and about 76% indicated that they would purchase one in the future if their current microwave oven "dies." Results from this study have implications for appliance manufacturers who can increase sales by targeting this group, researchers in household equipment who can study adoption of other innovative appliances, and developers of retirement communities who might consider providing a microwave oven for use by residents or provide a space where one can be placed. Master of Science

One of the family's responsibilities is to conduct activities of early childhood education and child care which prepare children for further education and human capital development. This study focused on family behavior in allocation of time and income for investment in children. This study used a pre-existing database with a total sample of 301 rural families with one child aged 2-5 years from three villages of Agam (West Sumatera) and two villages of Wonogiri (Central Java). Interviews and testing were conducted at each sample's home. The data were analyzed using descriptive and statistical analyses. Rich and small families invested significantly more time and money in children than poor and large families. Mother's working time, child's age, and family type had negative and significant influence on the amount of time spent on children. The families that devote more time in children spend and invest less money in children. Javanese families in the study invested less money but more time in children, while Minangese families invested more money but less time. The amount of time spent for children had a positive and significant influence on the child's nutritional status, and an insignificant impact on the child's IQ score. Besides the amount of time devoted to children, the child's nutritional status also was influenced by the child's age and gender. Also, the child's IQ score was significantly and positively influenced by the father's education and negatively by family size, family type, and the child's age. Based on the findings, it was apparent that poor families may be continuously trapped in poverty, because of less ability to invest in children. Parental investment in children may lead to better child quality. This study provides evidence that mother's time spent outside the home may lead to less time investment, and less time investment may negatively influence the child's nutritional status. As policy is formulated, non-economic as well as economic aspects should be considered. Additional research is needed to further explore the most appropriate measure of child quality and the variables which influence child quality. Ph. D.

Historically, the construction, alteration, and mending of clothing was provided through household production activities, free of charge by the female members of the household or members of the extended family. These practices have changed in some families because of societal and cultural changes such as the increasing number of women who are employed outside of the household. Apparel construction, alteration, and mending are now available for purchase from service providers in the marketplace. Thus the overall purpose of this research was to examine the nature and foundation of the nonnative influences and attitudes of a sample of employed women toward purchasing apparel sewing services. Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) reasoned action model which theorizes four stable relationships provided the theoretical framework for the research. The four relationships were Behavior-Intention (BI}, Attitude-Subjective Norm-Intention (ASNI), Behavioral Beliefs-Attitude (BBA), and Normative Beliefs-Subjective Norm (NBSN). Four corresponding objectives were investigated for three sewing services, clothing construction, alteration, and mending. A fifth objective for each apparel sewing service was used to explore the possible associations among a set of external variables and the employed women's estimated attitudes, estimated subjective norms, and the relative weights of the attitudinal and normative components in the ASNI relationship. Questions to measure behaviors, intentions to purchase, attitudes, behavioral beliefs, subjective norms, and normative beliefs were developed according to Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) guidelines. Additional questions were developed to assess fourteen external variables derived from the review of literature. Two thousand ninety two questionnaires were sent through Virginia Tech's campus mail; 657 (97%) of the 679 (32%) returned were useable for the study. Kendall's Tau testing resulted in significant positive BBA relationships for all three sewing services. Multiple regression testing resulted in significant positive ASNI relationships for all sewing services. Significant positive BBA and NBSN relationships resulted from Pearson Product Moment Correlations for all three sewing services. All four null hypotheses for all three sewing services were rejected and the research hypotheses were supported. The fifth objective was investigated through three null hypothesis for each sewing service; each null hypothesis was tested with each external variable. The external variable, knowing someone who sews for pay, yielded statistically significant results for all three sewing services in the F-tests for the overall regressions, analysis of variance, and in the Tukey' s post hoc test; however this variable did not lead to significant differences in the standardized betas for services of altering and mending clothes, according to the Chow tests. No other external variables had as many significant tests for all three sewing services as knowing someone who sews for pay had, even though there were other significant tests in some of the relationships tested. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ph. D.

This study was designed to determine whether the variables gender, age, marital status, occupation, self-employment, income, race, and education could be used individually or in combination to both differentiate among levels of investor risk tolerance and classify individuals into risk-tolerance categories. The Leimberg, Satinsky, LeClair, and Doyle (1993) financial management model was used as the theoretical basis for this study. The model explains the process of how investment managers effectively develop plans to allocate a client's scarce investment resources to meet financial objectives. An empirical model for categorizing investors into risk-tolerance categories using demographic factors was developed and empirically tested using data from the 1992 Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF) (N = 2,626). The average respondent was affluent and best represented the profile of an investment management client. Based on findings from a multiple discriminant analysis test it was determined that respondent demographic characteristics were significant in differentiating among levels of risk tolerance at the p < .0001 level (i.e., gender, married, single but previously married, professional occupational status, self-employment status, income, White, Black, and Hispanic racial background, and educational level), while three demographic characteristics were found to be statistically insignificant (i.e., age, Asian racial background, and never married). Multiple discriminant analysis also revealed that the demographic variables examined in this study explained approximately 20% of the variance among the three levels of investor risk tolerance. Classification equations were generated. The classification procedure offered only a 20% improvement-over-chance, which was determined to be a low proportional reduction in error. The classification procedure also generated unacceptable levels of false positive classifications, which led to over classification of respondents into high and no risk-tolerance categories, while under classifying respondents into the average risk-tolerance category. Two demographic characteristics were determined to be the most effective in differentiating among and classifying respondents into risk-tolerance categories. Classes of risk tolerance differed most widely on respondents' educational level and gender. Educational level of respondents was determined to be the most significant optimizing factor. It also was concluded that demographic characteristics provide only a starting point in assessing investor risk tolerance. Understanding risk tolerance is a complicated process that goes beyond the exclusive use of demographic characteristics. More research is needed to determine which additional factors can be used by investment managers to increase the explained variance in risk-tolerance differences. Ph. D.

This study obtained data on North Dakota women entrepreneurs engaged in home-based businesses in order to provide a profile of this population. The study also determined what demographic characteristics and workspace conditions are related to satisfaction with the workspace. The Women's Business Institute provided the database. The survey method was an opscan format mail questionnaire, which produced a 38% response rate. Chi-Square and Phi Coefficient analysis of 116 responses provided answers to the research questions. A telephone survey of non-respondents suggested that the responses were representative of the sample. Testing of the model showed the following major findings: (1) These North Dakota home-based businesses are small, part-time, developing businesses fulfilling personal as well as economic needs. (2) The women entrepreneurs are well educated, middle-aged, and have no children under five years of age. (3) Most of the businesses are not the major source of income for the household. Almost two-thirds of the entrpreneurs report that the business provides less than 20% of the total household income. (4) Almost three-fourths of the sample expressed satisfaction with all five workspace variables: space, privacy, security, personal safety, and accessibility. The women entrepreneurs are committed to having a business in the home, as suggested by their designation for workspace and storage, and time spent in the workspace. This sample showed that a business can be integrated into the home without decreasing satisfaction with housing. Also, this group of entrepreneurs may be an indicator of an emerging style of home-based business, "hobbypreneurs." They seek fulfillment of personal needs as well as economic needs, and spend most of the business time in the workspace versus away from home. Ph. D.

The research purpose was to explain the user's influence on energy consumption with cooking systems using electricity. This research was conducted in two phases. The research objective of Phase I was to determine if relationships exist that explain the user's influence (i.e., user characteristics--knowledge, experience, practices, and user interaction--and appliance operating time) on the energy consumption of cooking systems using electricity. The ultimate aim of this research, the outcome of Phase II, was to identify categories of cooking style that explain the user's influence (i.e., user characteristics and appliance operating time) on energy consumption of cooking systems using electricity. The data used to answer the research question consisted of video tapes of consumers preparing the research menu, a survey, and data recorded on a data collection sheet by the researcher (i.e., watthour consumption). Simultaneous triangulation was used to answer the research questions. Phase I determined that energy consumption was correlated with knowledge, user interaction, practices, appliance operating time, cooking system interaction, goodness-of-fit, information, behavior, the user, and statistical interaction between the cooking system and goodness-of-fit. Independent variables explained 38.6% of the variation in energy consumption. However, when only the variables under the user's control were included in the regression model, just 25% of the variation in energy consumption was explained. Phase II determined the three most important factors that distinguish the five cooking style categories based on user characteristics (i.e., patient style, average style, uninformed style, hurried style, and hurried style with no control) were: (a) percentage of the sample that left the heat source on after cooking, (b) percentage of the sample that did not match the diameter of the heat source and the diameter of the cookware when using high heat, and (c) percentage of the sample that fried using high heat. Additional variables that differed among categories were: reusing hot elements, use of retained heat, and use of medium heat settings. In summary, important factors in explaining variations in energy consumption include: inherent characteristics of the cooking system, user's knowledge, highest heat setting selected and matching the diameter of the heat source with the cookware diameter, leaving the heat source on after cooking, and selecting highest heat setting when frying. Three categories of consumers cooking style were developed (i.e., low, average, high energy consumption) to summarize the data. The highest heat setting selected and leaving the heat source on after cooking was completed were factors that distinguished consumers among the three categories. Ph. D.

At a time when problems faced by youth and families are complex and multi-faceted, organizations serving this audience have limited resources and find single-agency, categorical approaches inadequate. Collaboration offers communities a process to create solutions that are holistic and maximize resources. The purposes of this study were to examine factors necessary for collaboration and to assess barriers and incentives for these relationships. Case study methodology was applied to a rural community child care collaborative in Fauquier County, Virginia. All members who had ever served on the Board of Directors for this collaborative program were surveyed. The theoretical basis for research were 19 factors associated 'Nith collaboration identified by Mattessich & Monsey (1992). Respondents were asked to determine to what extent they considered these factors to be important and to what extent they were evident in the collaboration studied. In addition, open ended questions probed barriers and incentives for collaboration as experienced by respondents. Master of Science

The problem addressed in this study was: What home modifications are made to residential environments to meet the functional capabilities of the aging in place audience? The study was conducted in two phases. In Phase I 102 Floyd County, Virginia, adults 65 years of age or older were interviewed in order to identify their task capabilities and identify the modifications being made to meet their environmental needs and task capabilities. Phase II consisted of a case study of six females taken from the Phase I sample group. This section of the study focused on the modifications identified in Phase I, the techniques used, and the reasons they were made. The findings indicate that 26% of the adults in the study were experiencing difficulty with at least one Activity of Daily Living, 33% were experiencing difficulty with at least one Instrumental Activity of Daily Living. However, like many older adults, these individuals had a relatively high function level and wanted to stay in their home as long as possible. Modifications are being made in order to equalize the participants' function level and the characteristics of the living environment. Housing education programs should be targeted toward the elderly and their family members and provide more information relating to aging in place. Professionals in housing and related fields should have the knowledge necessary to advise clients on making decisions to help insure their ability to live independently as they age. Master of Science

Computers are being used in interior design for space planning, drafting, and modeling. Advances in technology have made it possible to create graphic renderings and animations which enable designers and clients to “walk through” the designed space long before its construction. In kitchen showrooms this technology can be used as a marketing device to generate numerous three-dimensional computer models of complete kitchen setups, each capable of displaying all the possible combinations of styles and finishes available. The purpose of this study was to test the communication effectiveness of three-dimensional computer-generated models in presenting design ideas and alternatives to a client. Three forms of kitchen design presentations were compared: Line Drawings, an actual Showroom Display, and three-dimensional Computer Model. A sample of 32 residents from the town of Blacksburg, Virginia were shown the three presentations and scored each one for its efficiency of communication of specific design concepts. Their reactions to the use of computer models as presentation media were also obtained. ANOVAs and Chi Square tests were used to analyze the data. The Showroom Display was the best communicator of space and design ideas and the, Computer Model was most effective in presenting color and finish alternatives. In conclusion, the Computer Models were found to be an effective and acceptable means of kitchen design presentation. Although they cannot replace Showroom Displays, Computer Models can be used effectively and economically as an enhancement to showroom displays and can facilitate reduction of the number of displays required for effective marketing in a showroom. Master of Science

Computer-aided design has been integrated into the design process primarily in the latter stages as a drafting tool for detailing and accuracy rather than incorporated into the early stages as a design tool for enhancing ideational fluency. Pencil-based design (i.e., hand drawing and sketching) has traditionally been the graphic medium in the ideation process to aid in externalizing and manipulating designers' ideas. The early, creative design phases require the design medium that is used during schematic ideation yield to the deSigner's needs in generating, communicating, and evaluating ideas (Marshall, 1992). The integration of the computer-based method into schematic ideation may impact the design process by possibly affecting the designer's creative abilities and the resulting creative aspects of the design solution. This study examined the products of creativity to determine if differences exist in creativity ratings of design solutions generated using two design methods - pencil-based and computer-based - in the preliminary design phases. Interior design students (n=40) used the two design methods and generated design solutions for a small restaurant project. An established instrument was used by eight design educators to evaluate the design solutions on creathlity and six other design merit aspects. The process of creativity was also examined and the perceptions of the interior design students were assessed regarding the use of the deSign methods and the influences on creativity. Ph. D.

This study was approached with a desire to move forward the body of knowledge concerning environmental research as it pertains to the hospitality industry. The endeavor was undertaken with the belief that concern and awareness about the environment is not a passing fad but a fundamental shift in society. In order for any business to survive it must keep up with changes and meet the demands of consumers. The research efforts in this study were aimed at establishing the validity and reliability of a consumer behavior model specifically related to environmental behavior. The purpose of this dissertation was to evaluate a consumer's intention to stay in a hotel based on the environmental strategies used by that hotel. Hines (1984) developed a conceptual environmental consumer behavior model based on a meta-analysis of literature on environmentally responsible behavior. Hines' conceptual Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior utilized knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personal responsibility and locus of control to predict environmental behavior. The goal of this study was to empirically test an adapted version of Hines' Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior. This adapted version utilized knowledge, attitudes and perceived self-efficacy to predict consumers' intentions to purchase a night's stay in a hotel. Canonical correlation analysis was used to test the relationship between intention and each of the variables (knowledge, attitudes and perceived self-efficacy) in Hines' model. The multivariate test of significance revealed that each variable had a positive relationship to intention to purchase. The Hines' Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior was more useful in predicting consumers' intention to purchase a night's stay in a particular hotel than each variable individually. The model tested in this study has laid the foundation for developing a sound environmentally responsible consumer behavior model. The research findings suggest that a hotel implementing environmental strategies can increase business for that hotel. Ph. D.

The purpose of this research was to determine consumers’ satisfaction with cooking systems commonly available in the United States. Five types of cooktops (conventional electric coil, gas flame, solid element, and halogen and electric coil under glass ceramic) and six types of cookware (glass ceramic, porcelain enamel-on-aluminum nonstick, stainless steel with an aluminum disk, heavy gauge aluminum, thin gauge aluminum, and heavy gauge aluminum with non-stick finish) formed 30 cooking systems. Fifteen consumers prepared one menu that represented four cooking operations (frying, boiling, thermalization, and waterless) with each of the 30 cooking systems. They also completed a three-part questionnaire to determine their knowledge and practices regarding the interaction between cooktops and cookware at the beginning, to assess their satisfaction with each cooking system, and to test their knowledge and preferences after completing the 30 cooking systems. Statistical analysis included repeated measures ANOVA, T-test, and General Linear Model (GLM). Statistically significant findings include: (1) Knowledge was different before and after completing the 30 cooking systems; (2) There was a relationship between consumers’ knowledge and overall satisfaction; (3) There was a relationship between optimum compatibility and consumers’ satisfaction; (4) There were differences among cookware of different gauges with respect to evenness of heating; (5) The cooking systems required different levels of user interaction; (6) There were differences in consumers’ satisfaction with cookware cleaning and frying due to the interior finish of the cookware. However, there was no significant difference in consumers’ overall satisfaction with the cooking systems. Master of Science

The purposes of this study were (a) to compare open plan housing to semi-open and closed-plan designs on perception of crowding and reactions to crowding and (b) formulate a theoretical basis for explaining housing and human behavior. The objectives were to determine (a) if the number of people who could occupy open-plan housing without feeling crowded would differ from the number who could occupy semi-open or closed plans and (b) if the crowding accommodation time and reactions to crowding would be influenced by floor plan design. Analysis of Variance statistical techniques were used. Forty-five women who worked outside the home and occupied households of four or more persons with at least two children under the age of 18 were were randomly assigned to one of the three floor plan groups. Three identical models constructed with varying degrees of openness to 1" = 1'-0" scale represented the public areas of a dwelling approximately 1,150 square feet in size. Figures and furniture were constructed to the same scale. Subjects independently placed figures in the models in four typical family activity scenarios until one more figure was perceived as one too many. The scenarios, which represented goal-directed and non-goal directed activities, varied in the level of social interaction that was anticipated. After figures were placed to simulate crowding, subjects were asked questions related to their attitudes and responses to crowding. At the .05 level of significance, subjects placed fewer figures in the open plan model than in the semi-open and closed plans when given a scenario in which low levels of social interaction (privacy) were desirable. Significant differences were also observed among the four different scenarios. When scenarios represented goal-directed behaviors, fewer figures were placed, accommodation time was less, and reaction to crowding was greater than when scenarios represented unstructured social activities. The results suggest that small dwellings constructed for families with children should have some division of space in the living, dining, and kitchen area to support low-social interaction and goal-directed behaviors. Further research is needed to determine if uncontrollable high social interaction within a dwelling reduces goal-directed behavior. Ph. D.

Plants are frequently used as design components for various types of interior settings. Design professionals may specify plants because of a subconscious awareness of the human need for natural contact, or as in may cases, such as in a "sunspace", because it is traditional to do so. Past studies by behavioral and horticulture researchers have documented human preference for plants, and have shown that plants positively affect people psychologically, but little research has been done to determine whether the use of plants in interior environments can influence human behavior. Interior plantscaping is a vital and expanding type of agribusiness, with millions of dollars being spent each year to install and maintain plants specified by design professionals. Plants are frequently used for clients in industry, health care, hospitality, retail, education, and in personal residences. Demonstrating that plants influence human physical behavior in interior environments would increase their value as interior design components, and provide a powerful sales tool to the plantscaping industry. Because of the potential importance of understanding more about the influence of plants in interior spaces on human behavior, this research examines whether user behavior patterns and spatial perceptions can be changed by the simple addition of interior plantscaping. This study was conducted to determine whether the introduction of trees and plants into an underutilized area of a newly constructed interior atrium would affect user perceptions of, and/or behaviors in the space. User perceptions of and activities within the atrium were recorded on questionnaires and behavioral maps, both before and after the installation of Ficus trees and Chinese Evergreen plants. Surveys were used to collect demographic information, suggestions for improving the atrium, and to determine user perceptions via the use of 13 polar adjective pairs on a six point semantic differential scale. Maps were used to record user behaviors on the lower atrium level where the plants were placed. The majority of data were analyzed descriptively by frequencies and percentages. Semantic differential analysis was done using two-tailed t-tests at p = .05. T-tests did not prove to be significant. There was mean movement of perceived perceptions from pre- to post-test. User behavior on the lower atrium level appeared to be affected by plant installation. A preference was shown for napping under the trees, and users spent more time on that atrium level when the trees and plants were present. Master of Science

The major purpose of this study was to determine the factors which affect elderly individuals' innovativeness toward housing and factors which affect the acceptance of nontraditional housing type(s) by elderly individuals. The study analyzed data from the Southern Regional Research Project, 5-194, "Barriers and Incentives to Affordable Housing." The sample consisted of 1,878 respondents over age 55 who resided in 28 communities in seven southern states. A conceptual study framework was proposed to show the variables and relationships among the variables involved in this study and to test hypotheses. A theory of "diffusion of innovations" developed by Rogers (1983) was used as the theoretical background for this study. Two knowledge continuum indices of Weber, McCray, and Claypool (1985), based on the adoption process of Rogers (1983), were used to measure acceptance of nontraditional housing types: mobile homes, apartments or townhouses, solar houses, earth-sheltered houses, or a combination of these four housing types. Ph. D.

The purpose of this research was to incorporate a potato product into bread as a partial replacement for wheat flour and to describe a collaborative process for the development of bread products in three Soviet communities. Six potato flake breads and six cooked-mashed potato breads, with and without added gluten, were evaluated in a pilot study. Consumer acceptance scores indicated no significant differences among the twelve bread products. Four bread products, 29% and 45% cooked-mashed potato breads without added gluten, 15% potato flake bread with added gluten, and a 100% wheat flour bread, were selected for objective measurements, descriptive sensory evaluation, and central location acceptance testing. The four breads were not significantly different in the objective measurements of standing height, percent protein and amino acid content The three potato breads had the highest moisture percent loss on day 1. Texture analysis indicated the 45% bread had the highest texture measurements from the day of baking through day 4. The control "rapid" bread had the lowest analysis of freshness measurements. Staling, as measured by differential scanning calorimetry, indicated the potato breads had significantly reduced staling rates when compared to 100% wheat flour bread. Eleven trained panelists judged ten characteristics of the control and potato breads. The panelists perceived the potato breads to be more moist than the control. The other sensory characteristics of the control and potato breads were judged as similar. Central location acceptance testing in Alaska and the Soviet Far East indicated that the potato breads were acceptable and consumers indicated they would buy the breads if they were available. Across all locations the locally purchased control bread was liked significantly less than the potato breads. A collaborative process was designed for development of food products in Soviet and Alaskan communities. Ph. D.

Clothing can be used as a tool to adjust one’s image in society. Western society’s infatuation with the slim body type has caused great discomfort for the large-size female. Hence, the effective use of the clothing "tool" is most important for the large-size female. This study was designed to determine if the place of purchase of clothing limited or enhanced the effectiveness of the clothing "tool". The objectives of this study were to determine if large-size women who shopped in department stores differed in self-esteem, body satisfaction, and design line preference from large-size women who shopped in specialty stores and to determine if relationships existed among these variables. Data were collected using a modified version of the Baggs Scale. The Likert type instrument was comprised of 10 self-esteem, 7 body satisfaction, and 14 design line preference items. The remainder of the instrument was composed of demographic information. The instrument was pre-tested twice using the female employees of The College of Human Resources at Virginia Tech. The final sample of 59 large-size females was derived from a random sample of female employees at Virginia Tech. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and Pearson Product Moment Correlations. The sample exhibited a high positive self-esteem, low body satisfaction, and a preference for clothing with vertical orientations. Significant correlations were found to exist among the variables. Master of Science

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a relationship exists between who makes major and everyday spending decisions and the variables: average age of couple, length of marriage, and the wife's contribution to the income. Previous studies have provided divergent opinions as to who makes family spending decisions. A questionnaire was developed especially for this study. Respondents in the study were the wives in 91 Blacksburg,Virginia, families in which husband and/or wife were employed. It was hypothesized that no relationships exist for major housing, transportation, and food decisions between the decision-maker and average age of couple, the decision-maker and length of marriage, and the decision-maker and the wife's contribution to the income. Hypothesis I could be partially rejected since the decision-maker for major transportation decisions was significantly related to average age of couple and length of marriage. In younger couples and those who had been married a short time, both husband and wife made the major transportation decisions while the husband had more responsibility in making major transportation decisions among couples who were older and had been married longer. Regardless of age, length of marriage, or the wife's contribution to the income, the majority of major housing and food decisions were made jointly by husband and wife. Master of Science

America's population is aging. People are living longer and medical advances continue to make that true. Many citizens count on social security as a major source of retirement income. Future retirees will find that there will be fewer workers to support them and unless the nation stops borrowing from the social security fund to finance the deficit, there will be less money for retirees. All of this means that it is important for individuals to save for retirement. Martin Fishbein developed the Behavioral Intention Model to explain various behaviors. According to the model, attitude and subjective norm explain the variation in the intention to behave a certain way and there is a high correlation between intention and behavior when using this model. Indirect measures of attitude and subjective norm increase understanding of these variables. The Fishbein model and an extended version of it, to which demographic variables were added, were tested in this study. Five hundred Virginia Tech classified employees received the mail survey instrument, which was based upon Dillman's specifications, in June 1988. A 74.6% response was received. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, t-tests, multiple regression, and path analysis. While the Fishbein model accounted for 22% of the variation in the intention to save for retirement, the extended model accounted for 40% of the variation. In addition to attitude, number of assets, having a dependent child between the ages of 5 ard 13, number of years expected to live after retirement, and age made significant contributions to the variation in the intention. It was concluded that the extended model is a better theoretical framework for explaining the intention to save for retirement. There were statistically and practically significant differences in the indirect measures of attitude and subjective norm for those who intended to save and those who did not. However it was apparent that neither group believed that saving now will assure than of financial security in retirement. Additional research is needed to further explore the variables which influence individual's intentions to save for retirement. Ph. D.

A laboratory experiment was performed to investigate the interaction between container material and energy source. The energy sources used include: conventional electric coil, gas flame, induction, solid element, and electric resistance coil under glass-ceramic. The container materials investigated include: thin gauge aluminum, heavy gauge aluminum, glass-ceramic, thin gauge porcelain-on-steel, and heavy gauge stainless steel with thick aluminum heat core. Crepes were prepared to determine the browning pattern for each cooking system (combination of energy source and container material). Water was used as a test medium for both speed of heating and retained heat tests. Duncan Multiple Range Tests were performed to determine significant differences between systems, and a General Linear Models Procedure was used to assess the contribution made by each variable on variances between systems. When speed of heating, and retained heat are desired, the important variable was the cooktop. The induction, gas flame, and conventional electric coil boiled water more quickly, and the solid element and the electric resistance coil under glass-ceramic retained the most heat. When even browning is desired, the choice of cookware is important. Heavy gauge aluminum and heavy gauge stainless steel with a thick aluminum heat core produced the most even browning. Systems that performed all tests well include the conventional electric coil paired with heavy gauge aluminum or heavy gauge stainless steel with thick aluminum heat core cookware. Master of Science

The purpose of the study was to develop a methodology for evaluating the livability of single-family houses and to test it on conventional and prototypical house types. The House Plan Evaluation Checklist and the Housing Satisfaction Scale were developed and analyzed for content validity using the responses of randomly selected housing professionals. Once the instrumsnts were revised they were used to evaluate the Benchmark house type (FmHA plan no. H5-41) and the Solar Attic house type (Cooperative Extension Plan Service experimental plan no. 7220). A randomly selected sample of 32 housing professionals evaluated the plans of these houses using the Hause Plan Evaluation Checklist. They rated the Solar Attic plan significantly higher on five of ten subscales. All of the subscales of the House Plan Evaluation Checklist had high inter-rater reliability when used by the housing professionals to rate the Benchmark house and the majority of the subscales also had high inter-rater reliability when used to rate the Solar Attic plan. The Housing Satisfaction Scale and an interview schedule were used with samples of 15 Benchmark and 15 Solar Attic residents to obtain information about their housing satisfaction and demographic, housing, and energy characteristics. The Solar Attic residents rated their satisfaction with their housing significantly higher than the Benchmark residents on five of 13 Housing Satisfaction subscales. The Benchmark residents had significantly more female heads of households, less educated heads of households, and lower income households. Their housing was older, smaller and the residents had lived there longer. They used more electrical energy, although their housing had many of the same energy-saving features as the Solar Attic houses. The subscales of the Housing Satisfaction Scale had inconsistent inter-rater reliability when used by the residents of both house types to rate their satisfaction, but they had high internal consistency reliability ratings on all but the Cost subscale. Ph. D.

Effects of container geometry and material on microwave cooking performance, as measured by evenness of cooking, firmness, and moisture content were compared. Three food items were heated in round, tube, loaf, and square containers made of clear glass, amber glass, thermoset polyester, and polysulfone. Unflavored gelatin, custard, and cakes were prepared three times in each of the 13 microwave containers. Evenness of cooking was determined by comparing meltdown and temperature in gelatin, temperature and separation/uncooked portions in custard, and index to volume in cakes. Firmness was measured in custard while moisture content was determined in cakes. In analysis of the data, ANOVA and Duncan's multiple range test were performed. Significant differences were found between shapes as food items heated more evenly in tube and round containers than in square containers. Food quality was affected more by shape than by material. Foods prepared in the, plastic materials were more evenly heated than in the glass materials. Statistically, shape and material interacted with each other for three measures of microwave appliance performance temperatures and separation/uncooked portions of custards, and index to volume in cakes. The interaction of shape and material was greater as the heating time increased. Master of Science