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It is well recognized that commercial beef cattle production systems have a major impact on climate change, mainly due to the emission of enteric methane (CH4). The objective of this research was to evaluate if integrating animal + pasture + timber production in silvopastoral systems (SPS) would help neutralize the impact of enteric CH4 emission by facilitating carbon storage as soil organic carbon (SOC). This paper reports a study conducted in Brazil with a herd of 150 cows in 100 ha of Urochloa brizantha with Eucalyptus urograndis, on four tree configurations: SPS 1-clone GG-100 at 2 × 3 × 15 m spacing; SPS 2-clone i-144 at 2 × 3 × 15 m; SPS 3-clone GG-100 at 3 × 15 m; and SPS 4-clone i-144 at 3 × 15 m. Based on data collected through eight consecutive years, the gas balance was estimated. For all SPS treatments average, the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) of additional C stock exceeded the emissions. Considering only C sequestration from trees, the average CO2e sequestration was − 26.27 Mg·CO2e ha−1, while the average emissions of CO2 e was 23.54 Mg·CO2e ha−1 for enteric CH4 + pasture + tree, giving a net balance of − 2.73 Mg·CO2e ha−1. The “loss” of CO2e analyzed was compensated by the soil C sequestration in long-lived SOC pools, enhancing the resilience of farming systems by increasing soil organic matter and soil fertility capacity, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, therefore, providing benefits in livestock production and for environmental remediation.

Native vegetation in private lands plays an important role in providing ecosystem services and safeguarding biodiversity worldwide. Legal protection rules of this vegetation are thus crucial. In Brazil, since 1934, there has been a requirement for landowners to preserve a percentage of their land covered with native vegetation, the Legal Reserve. However, the 1934 legislation applies only to arboreal vegetation, while the protection of savannahs and grasslands begins after 1965 and 1989. The reference year for the application of Legal Reserves can thus have significant impacts on the amount of native vegetation legally protected. Here we tested the effects on Legal Reserve cover in Sao Paulo State, considering two different legal benchmarks as starting points: 1934 and 1965. Given that the 1934 law precedes the first aerial mapping in Brazil, we developed a methodology to estimate past native vegetation cover through a probabilistic approach. The forest deficit considering 1934 as the initial point is 3% lower than the one starting with the 1965 benchmark. Comparing both scenarios, the 1934 led to a reduction of 1255 farms with Legal Reserve deficit from a total of 30,417. For both scenarios, Legal Reserve deficits were concentrated in the West, Northwest, and Mid-west regions of the state. The outcomes showed that the benchmark change does not significantly affect the total area of Legal Reserves protection, the number of farms potentially benefited by this mechanism, and the amount of native vegetation deficit. However, the use of the 1934 as an initial date for considering protection of Legal Reserve can delay the implementation of the law due to a time-consuming farm-by-farm analysis, once the probabilistic map has an intrinsic limitation for an automatic process. Thus, the environmental gains with the adoption of 1934 as the initial date do not overcome the limitations of using a probabilistic map, suggesting that effective law enforcement depends on reliable and more recent baselines, allowing semi-automated analyses. This scientific evidence can be adopted by the other Brazilian States that have not yet defined the initial legal benchmark, balancing the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the 1934 Forest Act.

Brazil is one of the major contributors to land-use change emissions, mostly driven by agricultural expansion for food, feed, and bioenergy feedstock. Policies to avoid deforestation related to private commitments, economic incentives, and other support schemes are expected to improve the effectiveness of current command and control mechanisms increasingly. However, until recently, land tenure was unknown for much of the Brazilian territory, which has undermined the governance of native vegetation and challenged support and incentive mechanisms for avoiding deforestation. We assess the total extent of public governance mechanisms protecting aboveground carbon (AGC) stocks. We constructed a land tenure dataset for the entire nation and modeled the effects and uncertainties of major land-use acts on protecting AGC stocks. Roughly 70% of the AGC stock in Brazil is estimated to be under legal protection, and an additional 20% is expected to be protected after areas in the Amazon with currently undesignated land undergo a tenure regularization. About 30% of the AGC stock is on private land, of which roughly two-thirds are protected. The Cerrado, Amazon, and Caatinga biomes hold about 40%, 30%, and 20% of the unprotected AGC, respectively. Effective conservation of protected and unprotected carbon will depend on successful implementation of the Forest Act, and regularization of land tenure in the Amazon. Policy development that prioritizes unprotected AGC stocks is warranted to promote conservation of native vegetation beyond the legal requirements. However, different biomes and land tenure structures may require different policy settings considering local and regional specifics. Finally, the fate of current AGC stocks relies upon effective implementation of command and control mechanisms, considering that unprotected AGC in native vegetation on private land only accounts for 6.5% of the total AGC stock.

In Brazil, the Forest Code requires landholders to maintain fixed-width buffers of native vegetation along watercourses – legally called Areas of Permanent Preservation (APPs). In 2012, agricultural activities started to be partially allowed in APPs, but only if best management practices on soil and water conservation are adopted and if a narrow buffer strip with native vegetation is restored adjacently to the watercourse. In this paper, we present a modeling framework to investigate the capacity of legal compliant APPs to supply watershed services (erosion control and stream bank stabilization) in a 2,200 ha watershed in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Our results suggest that the narrower the riparian buffer the lower the control of soil erosion dynamic within APPs, and that riparian buffers smaller than 8 m can act as a source of sediments to streams. The adoption of best management practices can contribute to controlling soil erosion within APPs but the presence of native forests in the first 15 m is necessary to guarantee equivalent protection to streams when compared to APPs completely covered by forests. Moreover, we observed that forest restoration within APPs helped to reduce the average soil loss of the watershed by only 20 %, compared to a reduction of 55 % when best practices are implemented in all watershed agricultural areas. We conclude that (i) the reduced requirements for APP restoration may contribute to stream sedimentation, which will likely affect the supply of watershed services by stream ecosystems; (ii) the implementation of best management practices in APPs will not have the same effect as native forests to reduce stream sedimentation; and (iii) the adoption of best management practices in all agricultural production areas – and not only within APPs as required by law – is the best strategy to promote the supply of watershed services to society.

Resumo: Este artigo examina a relação entre responsabilidade social e ambiental e performance financeira de propriedades rurais brasileiras, no período de 2009 a 2013, por meio da análise de regressão logística ordenada. O estudo considera quatro medidas representativas da RSA: índice social, índice de destinação de resíduos, índice de cumprimento ambiental e índice de manejo sustentável. A performance financeira foi medida pela capacidade de pagamento, solvência e liquidez das propriedades. A amostra é composta de 1.056 observações que compõem um banco de dados primários. Todas as medidas de performance social e ambiental foram significativas, ou seja, estão associadas positivamente a pelo menos uma medida de performance financeira. Contudo, após o controle de autosseleção, o indicador social mostrou uma certa instabilidade, passando a apresentar uma relação negativa com a performance financeira – pior desempenho social associado a melhor solvência. Os resultados gerais da pesquisa demonstram que RSA não compromete a PF para a amostra de propriedades rurais estudada. A verificação inversa, quando a variável socioambiental é a dependente, mostrou uma relação positiva entre performance financeira e status socioambiental das propriedades. Os resultados gerais da pesquisa demonstram que RSA não compromete a PF para a amostra de propriedades rurais estudada. Abstract: This paper aimes to examine the relationship between social and environmental responsibility and Financial Performance of Brazilian farms from 2009 to 2013 by the logistic regression analysis. This study considers four disaggregated RSA measures: social index, waste disposal index, environmental compliance index and sustainable management index. The financial performance was measured by the farms ability to pay, solvency and liquidity. The sample comprises 1,056 observations creating a primary database. The results of the estimates show that a better socio-environmental status (SS) is associated with a better financial performance and similar effects for each of the disaggregated RSA measures. Overall, all social and environmental performance measures were significant for at least one FP measure. The social indicator showed certain instability after the self-selection control, presenting a negative relation with the financial performance, which means the worse social performance associated with better solvency. This result reveals a situation whichthe positive effects of environmental aspects are more noticeable than social factors are. The inverse verification showed a positive relation between the financial performance and socioenvironmental status. The general results show that RSA does not compromise the PF for the sample of rural properties studied.

© 2018, The Author(s). This paper addresses the relationship between compliance with social performance criteria (the social outcomes that must be achieved for certification) and procedural (management) criteria and this relationship’s significance for social equity at both farm and wider landscape levels. We consider social performance compliance to be pertinent to farm-level equity, and the relative compliance of small versus large farms to be pertinent to landscape-level equity. Certification’s management requirements are often deemed disproportionately burdensome for small, resource-poor producers, and hence a barrier to landscape-level equity. There is a lack of research examining how management criteria impact the ability of different sized farms to meet certification’s social performance requirements. We analysed 435 certification audits, covering all Brazilian coffee farms that sought Rainforest Alliance certification from 2006 to 2014 inclusive: 80 individual farms and 23 groups of farms. In principle, undergoing group certification permits smallholders to benefit from economies of scale. Our analysis revealed a statistically significant, positive correlation between compliance with procedural (managing sustainability plans) and social performance criteria. This correlation was stronger for groups than individual farms. Group farms’ compliance was statistically equivalent to that of individual farms, suggesting that group certification is achieving its intended purpose of socio-economic levelling of certified farmers. Over time, certified farms’ average compliances improved. Our findings suggest that management requirements play an important role in improving smallholders’ overall social sustainability performance and that group certification may help resource-poor smallholders achieve those requirements. Further work is required to understand causal mechanisms underlying the relationships we present.

A key question for food, biofuels, and bioproducts production is how agriculture affects the environment, and social and economic development. In Brazil, a large agricultural producer and among the biologically wealthiest of nations, this question is challenging and opinions often clash. The Brazilian parliament and several stakeholders have recently debated the revision of the Forest Act, the most important legal framework for conservation of natural vegetation on Brazilian private agricultural lands. Past decades have shown improvements in the agricultural sector with respect to productivity and efficiency, along with great reductions in deforestation and growth of environmentally certified production. However, the opposing sides in the debate have ignored this progress and instead continue to entrench their respective combative positions. A structured exchange involving nine experts associated with major producer interests (livestock, crops, planted forest, and charcoal) and environmental NGOs was moderated based on a framework that sorted viewpoints into four categories: (i) common ground - compatible interests considered to be high priority for Brazilian sustainable agricultural development; (ii) serving exclusive nature conservation interest; (iii) serving exclusive agricultural production interest; and (iv) mainly serving the purpose of sustaining dispute. We conclude that the majority of actions and expected future trends reflect achievements and ambitions to balance production and conservation, but much public opinion - and in turn decisions in the parliament and government for agriculture and conservation - is shaped by a perceived conflict between these objectives and a debate that has become, at least to some extent, an end in itself.

Gaining information on the dynamics of land cover changes is a valuable step towards improving practical conservation actions. In recent years, the Brazilian presidential elections in 2018 and the recovery from one of the nation's worst economic recessions defined a political scenario that has been causing shifts in the patterns of land cover change. A variety of national plans for the near-future exist and include the construction of new roads connecting remote Amazonian areas and large dams that could flood up to 10 million hectares. These development plans threaten environmental conservation, but the potential effects on the local or regional land cover are mostly unknown. In this work, we construct a model to evaluate the possible consequences of policy actions on land cover dynamics in the near-future at a high-resolution scale. The regression model extracts the historical relationships between land cover and spatial drivers of change, and its extrapolation for the future enables the simulation of scenarios for the national plans currently discussed in Brazil. We also simulate three scenarios based on the Representative Concentration Pathways of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which makes contrasting management assumptions. The resulting maps indicate that considerable changes in land cover composition and configuration may occur even in a short period. The historical Brazilian economic forces make the decrease in natural vegetation probabilities challenging to stop even in an environmentally oriented scenario, where plans for the construction of new infrastructure are abruptly interrupted. Our results also indicate that environmental degradation cannot be prevented without coordinated efforts between public agencies with a broad diversity of development viewpoints.

The Native Vegetation Protection Law - 2012 - (NVPL) is the main Brazilian regulation for protecting native vegetation (NV) on private land. The NVPL, currently in the implementation phase, reduced Legal Reserves (LR) requirements compared to its previous version, the 1965's Forest Act (FA), through several legal mechanisms. Among them, Article 68 (Art.68) exempts landholders from LR obligations if NV was converted without offending the legislation in place at the time of the conversion. The technical implementation of Art. 68 is controversial and its effects are still unknown. We developed a model to estimate the effects of Art.68 on LR using São Paulo State (Brazil) as case study. We analyzed former environmental laws to identify key periods in which NV preservation requirements had changed. After, we searched for past spatial data on NV cover with sufficient accuracy for each legal benchmark. Combining legal benchmarks with spatial data, we created two scenarios for Art.68 effects, plus a baseline scenario. The first scenario considered a single legal benchmark, the 1965's FA (scenario "1965"), while the other included the 1989 Cerrado's protection Federal Law as a second benchmark (scenario "1965/89"). The baseline scenario did not include Art.68 effects. Scenario "1965" reduced LR deficits in 49% compared to the baseline scenario, waiving landholders from restoration or offsetting needs in 423 thousand hectares (kha) of NV. Scenario "1965/89" waved 507 kha of NV from restoration needs and represented a 59% reduction in LR deficit compared to the baseline scenario. The LR reduction by scenario "1965/89" assumed particular importance considering that the additional cutback was concentrated on Cerrado, an already very fragmented and impacted region. Together with reductions from other NVPL rules, the additional effects of Art. 68 unfolded great concerns about the role of LR as a tool for NV preservation on private land, threating governmental restoration commitments, and pointing that conservation command and control approaches should be complemented with incentive policies to achieve the desired and committed standards.

Land tenure in many parts of Brazil remains uncertain and controversial. These problems have recently been exacerbated by changes in the legal framework regulating protected areas and the land market. A particular challenge facing attempts to improve land tenure security and governance in Brazil is the lack of a single, integrated assessment of all types of lands. Here we address this problem and present a first, integrated map of Brazilian land tenure encompassing all official data sources pertaining to both public and private lands. Of the total (8.5 million km2) 36.1% of all lands are public (with 6.4% officially undesignated), 44.2% are private, and 16.6% are unregistered or with unknown tenure. Strikingly, overlaps among land tenure categories sum to 50% of the registered territory of Brazil. A clearer understanding of uncertainties in land tenure, and the spatial distribution of those uncertainties can help guide research and public policies focused on minimizing land conflicts and strengthening governance and territorial planning to improve economic, environmental and social outcomes from land use in Brazil.

Forest Stewardship Council certification aims to use markets to promote socially and environmentally responsible forest management, with a core principle of social “equity”. Yet there is no comprehensive framework for defining and assessing “equity”, nor is there a methodology for determining differences in definitions among forest stakeholders. We've employed an analytical framework to a case study of the FSC in Brazil to assess if FSC equity goals are coherent and adherent to its policies, standards and impacts, what factors in FSC's implementation are influencing that coherency, and whether FSC's policies on equity match expectations of stakeholders affected by certification. We found that contextual market factors, local capacity, and procedural rules governing the certification process influence FSC's implementation in an asymmetric way, favoring the certification of large industrial firms over community-based operations. Meanwhile FSC policies and standards prioritize procedural and contextual equity within the operations of individual certified firms. This contrasts with the expectations of local stakeholders focused on distributive outcomes. In general, FSC's ability to reach both its own and local stakeholder goals for equity relies on the proactive agency of actors committed to overcoming the many barriers to local benefit that are both external and internal to certification itself.

The sugarcane (Sacharum officinarum) monocropping has had a great socio-economic and environmental impact in Brazil, and agroforestry (AFs) has been considered as an alternative to its sustainable production. However, there is a lack of field experiments results under such conditions. Therefore, yield measurement across transect in the tree–crop interface in on-farm conditions, as well as the use of simulation models, may allow the evaluation of biophysical interactions between trees and crops and system productivity. In this work, plant growth and yield in a sugarcane–eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis) on-farm interface were evaluated. The experimental site had a Chromic Ferralsol soil and it is located in a sub-tropical region of Brazil. Availability of solar radiation for the crop along the transect was estimated and its effect on sugarcane dry matter production was evaluated. Using such relations, two sugarcane–eucalyptus AFs cycles were simulated to estimate system productivity. The field results showed that the trees presented a higher growth in the AFs, while the crop growth and yield were inversely proportional to their distance from the trees. The eucalyptus wood volume increased from 0.15 to 0.29 m3 per tree from monocropping to AFs. The sugarcane dry matter decreased from 35.1 to 8.70 t ha−1 from the furthest to the closest position from tree along the transect. Simulations suggested that light was the main cause of the crop yield reduction, but the importance of competition for water and nutrients increased inversely according to tree distance. However, both simulated AFs provided land equivalent ratio (LER) similar to one (1). Field measurements and simulations indicate that agroforestry systems are a sound alternative for sugarcane cultivation in the studied region. Combination of on-farm studies and simulation models provided conditions to understand tree–crop interactions and to extrapolate field results so that the performance of a new system could be estimated.

Brazil is the world's main sugarcane producer and the production system has changed abiding to legal and technical recommendation. In Piracicaba many smallholders grow sugarcane in steep areas. Under such situation, mechanization at harvest makes cultivation impossible. This work assess the viability of agroforestry systems on joining crop production and conservation of natural resources. Soils at 12-20% slope class were identified, tree species which could be cultivated along with sugarcane were selected, and the design of the systems to be adopted was evaluated. Identified area occupies 11,556 ha and the most representative soil types are Typic Kandiuldult and Lithic Hapludoll. The exotic species coconut, eucalyptus, pejibaye and rubber, and eight native species have potential to be grown in contourhedgerows with sugarcane. Initial planting of exotic, domesticated trees is recommended, and gradual introduction of native, non-domesticated species, can be set according to their ecological requirements. O Brasil é o principal produtor mundial de cana-de-açúcar e seu sistema de produção tem sofrido mudanças devido a aspectos legais e técnicos. Na região de Piracicaba, grande parte dos pequenos produtores cultiva cana-de-açúcar em áreas de grande declividade, mas a mecanização da colheita tem inviabilizado seu cultivo nesta condição. Assim, foram identificados e selecionados terras e árvores visando compatibilizar a produção da cultura e a conservação de recursos naturais em sistemas agroflorestais. Os solos presentes no intervalo de 12-20% de declividade foram identificados, selecionamos árvores com potencial para serem cultivadas com cana-de-açúcar foram selecionados e os desenhos dos sistemas a serem adotados foram avaliados. A classe de declive identificada ocupa área de 11.556 ha e Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo e Neossolo Litólico são os solos mais representativos. As espécies arbóreas exóticas coco-anão-verde, eucalipto, pupunheira, seringueira e outras oito espécies nativas têm potencial para serem cultivadas com cana-de-açúcar em sistemas agroflorestais de aléias em contorno. Sugere-se o plantio inicial de árvores exóticas domesticadas e a introdução gradual de espécies nativas não domesticadas, de acordo com suas exigências ecológicas.

Socio-environmental certification uses evaluation criteria to promote the conservation of the natural environment and landscape connectivity, with the aim of constructing agricultural landscapes more suitable for biodiversity conservation. To test this, we examine whether socio-environmental certification of Brazilian coffee farms contributes to local conservation, particularly in terms of deforestation control, habitat protection and regeneration, and connectivity. The analysis compared changes in landscape structure and connectivity in certified farms before (1995–2002) and after nine years from the beginning of the certification process (2002–2011), using as a reference the surrounding landscape and a control group of non-certified farms. To quantify changes in landscape connectivity we used probabilistic indices of functional connectivity based on graph theory, and two species of terrestrial mammals with contrasting dispersal capacities and habitat requirements: Priodontes maximus (giant armadillo) and Marmosops incanus (gray slender mouse opossum). Our results show that changes in the last decade have been subtle, but that certified farms differ from surrounding areas for the greater deforestation control and habitat availability for both land cover types, and for the greater connectivity for P. maximus. The difference between certified and non-certified farms is not clear-cut, however, we have evidence that the certified farms contributed more than the surrounding areas to the conservation of the studied species when the balance of gains and losses of connectivity is considered. The subtle differences in temporal changes and groups might be partially explained by the fact that certified farms already had a different conservation profile at the beginning of the certification process. Despite the limitations in the sampling size (small number) and time scale (only nine years after certification) which may hinders the detection of certification effects, our findings indicate that certification was important in controlling deforestation and the conversion of new natural areas to agricultural lands.

O planejamento regional de agroecossistemas é um componente fundamental para a sustentabilidade da atividade agrícola, devendo considerar a realidade biofísica e socioeconômica. A agropecuária cumpre importante papel na região de São Carlos, SP, porém esta localiza-se em grande parte numa área de preservação ambiental. Este trabalho visou delimitar a Zona Agroecológica dessa região e diagnosticar seus agroecossistemas por meio de informações edafoclimáticas e socioeconômicas. A delimitação foi baseada no clima, geomorfologia e divisão administrativa. Da área delimitada estudou-se o clima, pedologia, uso da terra, estrutura fundiária e o manejo dos agroecossistemas. A Zona delimitada ocupa 286.824,08 ha, e é composta pelos municípios de Analândia, Itirapina, Santa Maria da Serra, São Carlos, São Pedro e Torrinha. Há potencial para a atividade agrícola, ocorrendo principalmente solos arenosos e de baixa fertilidade. Pastagens e cana-de-açúcar são os usos predominantes; a distribuição da posse da terra é desigual, e existe risco de degradação ambiental, pois não se empregam práticas compatíveis com as características naturais. Recomenda-se o uso de práticas que maximizem a conservação do solo, sua correção, e o aproveitamento de seus nutrientes, assim como o cultivo de espécies adaptadas a solos arenosos, que sejam pouco exigentes em fertilidade e resistentes a estresse hídrico. Regional planning of agroecosystems is a key component in the sustainability of agriculture and it should consider the biophysical and socio-economic reality. Agriculture plays an important role in the region of São Carlos, SP, Brazil, but it is located in an area of environmental conservation. This work aimed to delimit the Agroecological Zone of this region and to diagnose agroecosystems through soil, climate and socio-economic data. The delimitation was based on climate, geomorphology and administrative division of the counties. The soils, land use, distribution of land ownership and the management were studied. The Zone delimited occupies 286,824.08 ha, and is composed by the Analândia, Itirapina, Santa Maria da Serra, São Carlos, São Pedro and Torrinha counties. There is potential for agriculture, existing mainly sandy and low fertility soils. Pastures and sugar cane are the main land use, the distribution of the ownership is unequal and there is risk of environmental degradation because the farmers do not use practices compatible with the natural features. It is recommended to adopt practices that emphasize soil conservation and correction and nutrient uptake. Species adapted to sandy soils with low demand for nutrients and resistant to water stress should be cultivated.

Agroforestry systems are indicated as an alternative for sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) cultivation in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, however there are not many field experiments on plant performance under these conditions in the world. The objective of this work was to assess crop yield and partitioning in a sugarcane-rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) interface in on-farm conditions. The availability of irradiance for the crop along the interface was simulated and its effe ct over sugarcane dry matter production was tested. Crop yield was negatively affected by distance of the trees, but development and sucrose were not affected. Above ground dry matter increased from 16.6 to 51.5 t ha-1 from trees. Partitioning did not have a defined standard, as harvest index increased from 0.85 to 0.93, but specific leaf area was not significant along the transect, ranging from 13.48 to 15.73 m² kg-1. Light is the main factor of competition between the trees and the crop, but the relative importance of below ground interactions increases closer to the trees. Feasibility of the system depends on maturity of the trees and management strategies. Sistemas agroflorestais são indicados como alternativa para o cultivo de cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum officinarum) em Piracicaba, SP, Brasil, porém, há falta de experimentos sobre o desempenho da cultura nestas condições. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a produção e partição da cultura em uma interface cana-de-açúcar/seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis) em condição de campo comercial. Simulou-se a disponibilidade de irradiância para a cultura ao longo da interface e testou-se seu efeito sobre a produção final de matéria seca da cana-de-açúcar. A produção da cultura foi afetada de forma negativa pela distância das árvores, mas o desenvolvimento e o teor de sacarose não foram afetados. A matéria seca acima do solo aumentou de 16,6 para 51,5 t ha-1, a partir das árvores. A partição não apresentou um padrão definido, pois o índice de colheita aumentou de 0,85 para 0,93, contudo a área foliar específica não apresentou alteração significativa, com variação de 13,48 a 15,73 m² kg-1. A luz é o principal fator de competição entre a árvore e a cultura, mas a importância relativa das interações abaixo do solo aumenta próximo das árvores. A viabilidade deste sistema depende da maturidade das árvores e de estratégias de manejo.

Na região de Piracicaba, grande parte dos pequenos produtores cultivam cana-de-açúcar em áreas de alta declividade, mas a mecanização da colheita tem inviabilizado seu cultivo nesta condição. Sistemas agroflorestais (SAFs) podem ompatibilizar a produção da cultura neste cenário, com a conservação de recursos naturais, porém, há falta de pesquisa sobre seu cultivo nestes sistemas. Portanto, o uso de modelos de simulação e avaliações de campo da interface árvore-cultura podem desempenhar importante papel para investigar seus potenciais e restrições. Assim, identificamos e selecionamos terras e árvores para cultivo dos SAFs e avaliamos o crescimento e produção de plantas dos SAFs cana-de-açúcar x seringueira e cana-de-açúcar x eucalipto. Realizamos dois experimentos de campo e utilizamos o modelo WaNuLCAS e um modelo que simula a disponibilidade de radiação para culturas intercalares, acionando-o com a produção de matéria seca da cultura. SAFs em aléias em contorno são alternativa viável para cultivo de cana-de-açúcar no município de Piracicaba, havendo diversas espécies arbóreas exóticas e nativas que podem compor estes SAFs, destacando-se seringueira e eucalipto. Luz e água são limitantes ao crescimento da cultura e há aumento da competição de acordo com o crescimento das árvores. A importância relativa entre competição abaixo e acima do solo depende da distância das árvores. Contudo, o SAF cana-de-açúcar x eucalipto tem produção semelhante ao monocultivo de cada espécie. Os modelos permitiram avaliar os SAFs e orientar experimentos, mas suas indicações devem ser verificadas em experimentos de campo. A recomendação dos SAFs deve ser feita após análise econômica dos mesmos. In Piracicaba, many smallholders grow sugarcane in areas of high solpe, but the mechanization of the harvest process has made inviable its cultivation under this situation. Agroforestry systems (AFs) are an alternative that may join the cultivation of the crop under this scenario with conservation of natural resources. However, there is lack of research of its cultivation in AFs. Therefore, the use of simulation models and evaluation of on-farm tree-crop interfaces may play an important role to investigate its potentials and restrictions. Thus, we identified and selected lands and trees to the cultivation of the AFs and assessed plant growth and yield of sugarcane x rubber and sugarcane x eucalyptus AFs. We did two field experiments and used the WaNuLCAS model and another one that simulates the available irradiance for intercrops, related with their dry matter production. Contourhedgerows are a feasible alternative for sugarcane cultivation in Piracicaba, where many tree species may be part of it, especially rubber and eucalypts. Light and water are limiting factors for crop growth and competition increases with tree growth. The relative importance of each variable depends on the distance from the trees. However, the sugarcane x eucalyptus AF has similar production of the monocropping of each specie. The models allowed to assess the AFs and to drive field trials, but their results should be verified in experiments. The recomendation of the AFs should be done after their economic analysis.

A publicitação de informações confiáveis, acessíveis e transparentes sobre a conservação da natureza em terras privadas é importante para que a sociedade aumente a confiança no poder público, participe democraticamente das discussões e acompanhe as ações de conservação e seus resultados. O Cadastro Ambiental Rural (CAR), criado no âmbito da Lei Federal nº 12.651/ 2012, é um registro público eletrônico, com finalidade de integrar as informações das propriedades, bem como compor uma base de dados para controle, monitoramento, planejamento ambiental e combate ao desmatamento. Nesse contexto, esse trabalho teve como principal objetivo analisar o papel da transparência pública para o alcance dos objetivos dos instrumentos voltados para a conservação da natureza em imóveis rurais privados. Para tanto, foi realizada uma revisão bibliográfica sistemática sobre a transparência na gestão e disponibilização das informações sobre conservação da natureza em terras privadas. Os resultados obtidos nesta etapa passaram por uma Análise de Conteúdo, a partir da qual foram elaboradas: uma lista com 82 boas práticas; uma lista com 35 benefícios da transparência pública e 11 problemas decorrentes de sua ausência; e, uma lista com 8 problemas ou riscos associados à disponibilização de informações. Os resultados dessa etapa revelaram que a falta de transparência pública é uma característica comum entre os diferentes instrumentos e contextos geográficos estudados. A primeira etapa da pesquisa subsidiou também a construção de questionários, os quais foram enviados para as partes interessadas diretamente no CAR, sendo obtidas 51 respostas. As boas práticas, benefícios e problemas foram validados ao contexto do CAR. Observou-se que o CAR é um instrumento com potencial não só para conservação em terras privadas, mas também para gestão das propriedades e combate ao desmatamento. Porém, é preciso investir na validação dos dados autodeclarados e aumentar a disponibilização das informações. Os principais problemas encontrados estão relacionados à baixa capacidade institucional e receio dos proprietários com o uso das informações. Assim, concluiu-se que o fornecimento das informações relevantes é condição para o exercício pleno da cidadania, permitindo o controle social necessário das atividades públicas e privadas. Com relação ao CAR, existe a percepção das partes interessadas de que o instrumento não é suficientemente transparente para atender aos objetivos estabelecidos pela legislação florestal. Desta forma, espera-se que a identificação dos aspectos relacionados à transparência pública no acesso e gestão das informações possa contribuir para o melhoramento de CAR e, de maneira mais abrangente, dos modelos de governança ambiental dos diversos instrumentos existentes para conservação da natureza em imóveis rurais privados. Disclosure of reliable, accessible and transparent information about private land conservation is essential to increase society trust in public authorities, to democratically participate in discussions and to monitor conservation actions and their results. The Rural Environmental Registry (CAR, its Portuguese acronym), created under Federal Law nº 12.651/ 2012, is an electronic public registry, with the purpose to integrate the properties environmental information, as well as compose a database for control, monitoring, environmental planning and prevent deforestation. In this context, this study had the main goal of analyze the role of public transparency to achieve the purposes of private land conservation instruments. To this end, a systematic review was carried out about transparency in management and disclosure of information about private land conservation. The results obtained in this step went through a Content Analysis, from which were elaborated: a list with 82 good practices; a list with 35 benefits of public transparency and 11 problems arising from its absence; and, at last, a list of 8 problems or risks associated with disclosure information. The results of this step revealed that the lack of public transparency is a common feature among the different instruments and geographical contexts studied. The first step of this research also supported the construction of questionnaires, which were sent to directly CAR stakeholders, obtaining 51 responses. Good practices, benefits and problems have been validated in the CAR context. It was observed that CAR is a potential instrument not only for private land conservation, but also for properties management and combating deforestation. Nevertheless, it is necessary to invest in self-reported data validation and increase the disclosure of information. The main problems noticed are related to low institutional capacity and landowners\' fear of the information use of. Therefore, it was concluded that the provision of relevant information is an indispensable condition for the full exercise of citizenship, allowing for the necessary social control of public and private activities. With regard to the CAR, there is a stakeholder perception that the instrument is not sufficiently transparent to reach the goals established by forestry legislation. Thus, it is expected that the identification of the important aspects related to public transparency in information access and management can contribute to the improvement of CAR and, more broadly, of environmental governance models of the existing instruments used for private land conservation.

A monocultura da cana-de-açúcar vem se perpetuando há décadas, principalmente pela importância econômica para os países que a produzem, mas esse sistema de produção pode ocasionar impactos negativos aos recursos naturais. O sistema integrado agropecuário é uma estratégia de produção sustentável que integra atividades agrícolas, pecuárias e florestais na mesma área, proporcionando benefícios ambientais. Este sistema agrícola pode ser viabilizado por meio de manejos adequados, como o sistema de plantio direto, rotação ou sucessão de cultura. Utilizar a cana-de-açúcar como um componente da iLPF, proporciona mudanças no uso da terra, devido a melhora da utilização dos recursos naturais, associando a produção agrícola aos interesses socioeconômicos e produzir de uma forma eficiente e harmônica. Este trabalho teve como objetivo propor um sistema integrado, como a iLPF, incluindo a cana-de-açúcar como um dos seus componentes, e avaliar a possível viabilidade dessa junção utilizando simulações qualitativas no modelo WaNuLCAS. O modelo simula as interações solo-cultura-árvore acima e abaixo do solo, levando em consideração as interação de água, nutrientes e luz. Para as simulações qualitativas foi necessário o uso e aplicação do software Stella Isee, para que o modelo fosse executado. A área de estudo selecionada é um sistema silviagrícola, situado na Embrapa Pecuária Sudeste, na cidade de São Carlos, contendo sete espécies de árvores nativas, plantadas em cinco faixas com espaçamento de 22m entre faixas, e com as espécies arbóreas espaçadas com 2,5 x 2,5 m entre árvores. A simulação realizada foi um consórcio entre a espécie arbórea Canafístula e a lavoura da cana-de-açúcar. As variáveis de entradas foram obtidas de bibliografias e dados reais. Valores obtidos pelo modelo demostram a possível viabilidade do sistema. O questionário realizado levantou as principais considerações dos profissionais ligados tanto ao tema da cana-de-açúcar como da iLPF, sendo que a maioria dos entrevistados acreditam na possibilidade do uso da tecnologia. Sugar cane monoculture has been perpetuated for decades, mainly due to its economic importance in sugar cane producing countries. However, this production system showcases disastrous consequences, depleting and contaminating natural resources. The Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems (ICLS) is a sustainable production strategy that integrates agricultural activities, livestock and forest in the same area, providing environmental benefits. This system requires suitable management such as no-tillage, succession or crop rotation and is based in ecological, economic and social interactions. Studying sugar cane as a component of ICLS means providing land usage change, improving the use of natural resources, associate agricultural production with socioeconomic interests and also produce in an efficient and harmonic way. The aim of this study is to propose an integrated system, such as ICLS, and to include sugar cane as a component, evaluating the viability of this insertion through interviews and qualitative simulations using WaNuLCAS model. Previously to the model application, the software Stella Isee was used. The selected area for this study is a combination of agriculture farm and forest, located at EMBRAPA Livestock Southeast, in São Carlos city. The place is composed by native species cultivated in five rows, separated from each other by 22m. The distance between the species is 2,5m. Simulation was performed considering consortium of Peltophorum dubium and sugar cane. The WaNuLCAS model simulates the interaction between soil, trees and crop. As model input data we used information from papers and also experimental data from sugar cane plantation, Peltophorum dubium trees and soil moisture. The results obtained with the model shows viability of the integration, and interviews with experts in sugar cane plantation and ICLS testify that they believe in the possibility of integration between those two species.

O desmatamento se faz presente na história do Brasil desde a era colonial. Dados recentes evidenciam que o cenário só piorou nos últimos anos, especialmente no bioma da Mata Atlântica. No estado de São Paulo a cobertura por florestas decaiu de 80% para apenas 16,3% em um período de tempo relativamente curto. O processo de desmatamento resultou um grande arquipélago de pequenos fragmentos florestais sem conexão. Criou-se assim uma necessidade de se identificar os efeitos da fragmentação florestal e entender qual a relação existente entre esses remanescentes e o seu entorno. A importância dos efeitos da matriz circundante sobre os fragmentos tem implicação direta sobre as estratégias de conservação nas paisagens fragmentadas. Neste trabalho objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de borda de fragmentos florestais divididos em duas classes de tamanho e analisar como diferentes tipos de ocupação antrópica influenciam no estado de manutenção da biodiversidade e nos estoques de carbono, partindo do pressuposto de que diferentes tipos de matrizes influenciam o efeito de borda de maneira distinta. Foram analisadas as seguintes situações de interface: 1. cana-de-açúcar, 2. pastagem e 3. eucalipto, presentes no entorno de fragmentos de floresta Estacional Semidecidual localizados no município de Piracicaba-SP. O intuito desta pesquisa foi verificar quais situações são mais ou menos favoráveis à proteção do fragmento, verificando as alterações de estrutura, composição florística e estoques de carbono e biomassa. No contexto, analisou-se os principais mapeamentos existentes de uso e ocupação do solo do município de Piracicaba, verificando a porcentagem de áreas de floresta, cana-de-açúcar, pastagens e plantios monoculturais de eucalipto. Os fragmentos avaliados apresentaram claros indícios de efeito de borda até os 50 m. A interface de eucalipto apresentou maior riqueza de espécies e maior estabilidade de estoque de carbono na borda e no centro. Quanto à composição da paisagem, há a predominância do componente agropecuário no município de Piracicaba. A quase totalidade destes remanescentes estão circundados por estas ocupações, havendo pouca ou nenhuma conexão entre eles. Procura-se assim verificar a possibilidade de se utilizar as áreas de produção também como forma de preservação. Deforestation is present in Brazil\'s history since colonial era. Recent data shows that the scenario has worsened in the last years, especially in the Atlantic Forest biome. In São Paulo the coverage by forests declined from 80% to only 16,3% over a relatively short time. The deforestation process resulted in a large archipelago of small forest fragments with no connection. Thus, has created a need to identify the effects of forest fragmentation and understand which is the relationship between these remains and their surrounding. The importance of the effects of the surrounding matrix on the fragments have direct implications on strategies for conservation in fragmented landscapes. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of edge of forest fragments divided into two size classes and analyze how different types of anthropic occupation influence in maintenance of biodiversity and carbon stocks, on the assumption that different types of matrices influence the effect of edge differently. The following interface situations was analyzed: 1. sugar cane, 2. grassland and 3. eucalyptus, present in around of seasonal semideciduous forest fragments, located in Piracicaba-SP. The purpose of this research was to verify which situations are more or less favorable to the protection of the fragment, checking the structural alterations, floristic composition and carbon and biomass\' stocks. In addition, was analyzed the main mapping of land use and occupation of the municipality of Piracicaba, verifying the percentage of areas of forest, sugarcane, pasture and monoculture eucalyptus plantations. The fragments evaluated presented clear signs of edge effect up to 50 m. The eucalyptus interface presented greater species richness and greater stability of carbon stock at the edge and at the center. Regarding the composition of the landscape, there is predominance of the agricultural component (sugar cane and pasture) in the municipality of Piracicaba. Almost all of these remnants are surrounded by these occupations, with little or no connection between them. This study seeks to verify the possibility of using the production areas also as a way of preservation.

A crescente demanda por recursos naturais e a conseqüente perda de qualidade e quantidade dos mesmos, indica a necessidade do desenvolvimento de alternativas, nas diversas áreas do conhecimento e das atividades humanas. No caso dos agroecossistemas, as práticas convencionais provocaram ao longo do tempo a degradação do solo e dos recursos hídricos, a perda da biodiversidade e a desestruturação dos ecossistemas, que culminaram em desequilíbrios globais de balanço hídrico e temperatura. O presente estudo visa analisar o potencial de utilização de Sistemas Agroflorestais (SAFs). SAFs são práticas de manejo da terra há muito tempo conhecidas, que associam, deliberadamente, árvores com culturas agrícolas temporárias, permanentes e/ou animais simultaneamente ou sucedendo-se temporalmente no espaço; obtendo os benefícios de proteção ambiental e de produção proporcionados pelas árvores. Para a realização do estudo foram utilizadas as bases cartográficas digitalizadas das características ambientais (solo, topografia, hidrologia e clima) do município e as mesmas foram sobrepostas através do Sistema de Informação Geográfica (SIG). As características ambientais de São Carlos, indicam a necessidade da adoção de sistemas de produção sustentáveis, capazes de conservar a qualidade e a quantidade do solo e dos recursos hídricos disponíveis, bem como sua biodiversidade, por isso apresenta grande aptidão para a utilização dos SAFs e uma ampla variedade de espécies com potencial de uso. A prioridade de adoção de SAFs é para áreas degradadas e subutilizadas, áreas de preservação ambiental e adjacentes, reservas legais e áreas suscetíveis à erosão. Sugere-se novos estudos, em campo, para comprovação dos resultados teóricos obtidos. Growing demand for natural resources and the consequent losses on their quality and quantity indicates that it is necessary to develop alternatives for knowledge as well as for human activities. In the case of agroecosystems, conventional practices stimulated, at the same time, depletion of soil, water resources, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem disorganization, that takes to global unbalances on water and temperature. The aim of this study was to analize the potencial for utilization of Agroforestry Systems (AFSs) in São Carlos, SP. AFSs are land management practices known since long time ago. AFSs consist in association of trees with another activities (such as temporary/permanent agricultural species and/or animals), simultaneously or succeeding temporally on space. The trees used in this practice provide benefits like production and environmental protection. In this study, it was used local environmental features - soil, topography, hidrology and climate - represented on digital cartographic bases. They were overlaid by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). São Carlos environmental features indicate the necessity of adoption of sustainable production systems, enabling to conserve soil and water resources quality and quantity as well as the biodiversity. Therefore, São Carlos presents vocation for Agroforestry Systems utilization, with wide species variety that presents potencial use. Priority areas for AFSs implementation are those degraded and underutilized ones, environmental preservation areas and surroundings, as well as soils with high susceptible of erosion. It is suggested new studies with a practical approach aiming the confirmation of theoretical results obtained.

A exploração indiscriminada da vegetação natural e sucessivas alterações nas leis ambientais contribuíram para colocar grande parte dos produtores rurais em situação irregular no Brasil. Em 2012 após dois anos de negociações, o parlamento brasileiro aprovou novas mudanças no Código Florestal, que reduziu o passivo de vegetação natural acumulado. Entretanto, publicações recentes indicam que, mesmo com as novas alterações, o país ainda apresenta o passivo entre 17 e 21 Mha (milhões de hectares) que precisa ser recomposto. A redação atual do Código Florestal criou uma nova alternativa de regularização por meio de um dispositivo legal (Art. 68 - Lei Federal nº 12.651/2012), que permite avaliar a conformidade das áreas agrícolas de acordo com a lei em vigor no período de abertura da terra. Os possíveis resultados desse dispositivo sobre o passivo ambiental é, no entanto, ainda desconhecido. Objetivou-se com esse trabalho desenvolver uma metodologia capaz de relacionar os principais anos em que ocorreram mudanças nas leis ambientais com a abertura de novas áreas agropecuárias, sobretudo expor os possíveis cenários desse dispositivo sobre o passivo em RL, por meio de modelagem e geoprocessamento. A metodologia foi dividida em duas etapas complementares. Na primeira etapa estimou-se o passivo de vegetação natural nos imóveis rurais, de acordo com o Código Florestal, e na segunda etapa metodológica reconstruiu-se o histórico do uso das terras para o período entre 1940 e 2001 e aplicou-se as restrições legais em diferentes décadas. Foram avaliados quatro períodos (antes de 1934, 1934-1965, 1965-1989 e 1989-2001), sob dois cenários (considerar e não considerar as pastagens naturais), bem como um cenário de isenção na proteção da vegetação nativa no bioma Cerrado para o período (1965-1989). As pastagens naturais se consideradas como vegetação nativa restrita ao uso, influenciam diretamente a necessidade de recomposição, principalmente nas regiões Sul e Sudeste. Os resultados obtidos indicam um cenário potencial (máximo e mínimo) de redução na área a ser recomposta de vegetação nativa em Reserva Legal. Do passivo atual de 15,2 Mha calculado na primeira etapa, pode ser reduzido em no máximo 79% e no mínimo 52% com o dispositivo legal (Art. 68). The indiscriminate exploitation of natural vegetation and several changes in environmental laws contributed to place a large number of rural producers in an illegal condition in Brazil. In 2012 after two years of negotiations, the Brazilian parliament approved new changes on the Forest Code, which had the effect of reducing the liability of natural vegetation accumulated. However, recent publications indicate that, even with the new changes, the country still presents a liability between 17 and 21 Mha (millions hectares) that requires reset. The current wording of forest code created a new alternative of regularization through a legal device (Art. 68 - Federal Law no. 12.651/2012), which allows the evaluation of agricultural areas compliance according to law in effect at the time of land clearing. The possible outcomes of this device on current environmental liability is, nevertheless, still unknown. The aim of this study was to develop a methodology able of relate the main years that occurred changes in environmental laws with the opening of new agricultural areas, especially to expose potential scenarios that device over liabilities in LR, through modeling and geoprocessing. The methodology was divided into two complementary steps. The first step estimates liability of natural vegetation in private areas according to current environmental legislation, and the second methodological step reconstructs historical land use for the period 1940-2001 and implement legal restrictions in different decades. We evaluated four periods (before 1934, 1934-1965, 1965-1989 and 1989-2001) under two scenarios (consider and not consider the natural pastures), as well as a scenario for exemption the Cerrado biome from native vegetation protection for the period (1965 - 1989). The natural pastures if considered as native vegetation directly influence the need for restoration, especially in the South and Southeast regions. Results indicate a potential (maximum and minimum) scenario reduction in the area of vegetation to be restored in legal reserve. The current liability of 15.2 Mha calculated in the first step is reduced a maximum of 79% and a minimum of 52% by using the (Art. 68) legal device.