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The glycosylation of structural proteins is a widespread posttranslational modification in Archaea. Although only a handful of archaeal N-glycan structures have been determined to date, it is evident that the diversity of structures expressed is greater than in the other domains of life. Here, we report on our investigation of the N- and O-glycan modifications expressed by Methanoculleus marisnigri, a mesophilic methanogen from the Order Methanomicrobiales. Unusually, mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of purified archaella revealed no evidence for N- or O-glycosylation of the constituent archaellins, In contrast, the S-layer protein, identified as a PGF-CTERM sorting domain-containing protein encoded by MEMAR_RS02690, is both N- and O-glycosylated. Two N-glycans were identified by NMR and MS analysis: a trisaccharide α-GlcNAc-4-β-GlcNAc3NGaAN-4-β-Glc-Asn where the second residue is 2-N-acetyl, 3-N-glyceryl-glucosamide and a disaccharide β-GlcNAc3NAcAN-4-β-Glc-Asn, where the terminal residue is 2,3 di-N-acetyl-glucosamide. The same trisaccharide was also found N-linked to a type IV pilin. The S-layer protein is also extensively modified in the threonine-rich region near the C-terminus with O-glycans composed exclusively of hexoses. While the S-layer protein has a predicted PGF-CTERM processing site, no evidence of a truncated and lipidated C-terminus, the expected product of processing by an archaeosortase, was found. Finally, NMR also identified a polysaccharide expressed by M. marisnigri and composed of a repeating tetrasaccharide unit of [−2-β-Ribf-3-α-Rha2OMe-3-α-Rha − 2-α-Rha-]. This is the first report of N- and O-glycosylation in an archaeon from the Order Methanomicrobiales.

The Actinobacterial species Cellulomonas fimi ATCC484 has long been known to secrete mannose-containing proteins, but a closer examination of glycoproteins associated with the cell has never been reported. Using ConA lectin chromatography and mass spectrometry, we have surveyed the cell-associated glycoproteome from C. fimi and collected detailed information on the glycosylation sites of 19 cell-associated glycoproteins. In addition, we have expressed a previously known C. fimi secreted cellulase, Celf_3184 (formerly CenA), a putative peptide prolyl-isomerase, Celf_2022, and a penicillin-binding protein, Celf_0189, in the mannosylation capable host, Corynebacterium glutamicum. We found that the glycosylation machinery in C. glutamicum was able to use the recombinant C. fimi proteins as substrates and that the glycosylation matched closely that found in the native proteins when expressed in C. fimi. We are pursuing this observation as a prelude to dissecting the biosynthetic machinery and biological consequences of this protein mannosylation.

Cet article propose de discuter dans quelle mesure l’accompagnement des Business Angels contribue a une reduction des risques d’echec des entrepreneurs. Des elements d’explication de l’impact de cet accompagnement sont fournis a partir d’une enquete qualitative realisee aupres de 10 couples Entrepreneur-Business Angel via des entretiens semi-directifs. Cette etude a ete conduite principalement dans deux regions francaises : Ile-de-France et Provence-Alpes-Cote d’Azur. Realisee entre octobre 2015 et fevrier 2016, cette etude met en relief les motivations et les ressorts de la relation entre les porteurs de projets et les financeurs accompagnateurs. Elle identifie, a partir de verbatim des situations types qui permettent de comprendre les differences observees entre les entreprises accompagnees ; d’identifier les points forts et les eventuelles faiblesses du dispositif de financement et d’accompagnement. Il s’agit de mettre en evidence l’apport d’un type particulier d’apporteurs de capitaux, a savoir les Business Angels, dans la securisation du parcours des entreprises et de montrer comment leur engagement dans le financement et l’accompagnement d’une entreprise permet de reduire le risque d’echec.

Ce texte propose une analyse comparee des trajectoires de croissance d’entreprises implantees d’une part en Corse, de l’autre dans les departements semblables du pourtour mediterraneen. A travers cette etude il s’agit de mettre en evidence la specificite d’une economie insulaire au regard de territoires continentaux consideres comme ses plus proches voisins et de voir en quoi les specificites territoriales influent sur la croissance des entreprises. A partir de regressions quantiles sur donnees d’entreprises en panel au cours de la periode 2004-2010, nos resultats montrent la plus forte sensibilite de la croissance des entreprises corses aux dettes et l’importance du credit interentreprises dans leur fonctionnement. En revanche, alors que les entreprises des economies insulaires sont reputees prioritairement orientees vers le marche local, nous concluons a une sensibilite de la croissance des entreprises corses aux facteurs locaux differente de celle qui prevaut sur le pourtour mediterraneen.

Forthcoming

Business angels enjoy a strong reputation for being more efficient than other investors among policy makers, practitioners, and scholars. However, due to the limited availability of specific financial data, previous research has barely assessed the impact of angels on companies’ performance. This paper seeks to bridge this gap by providing evidence from a unique dataset made up of 432 angel-backed French companies which are compared to two control groups, one randomly selected and another one consisting of similar enterprises. This double comparison process enables us to purge our analysis of structural effect and to demonstrate the importance of the methodology in generating the sample. Indeed, the results we obtain significantly differ depending on the control group. Our results show that the positive influence of angels depends on the condition of the comparison. The set of BA-backed companies is more likely to exhibit superior performance when it is compared to a random sample whereas the companies’ performance is either identical or worse when it is compared to a sample composed of k-nearest neighbors. In addition, using a quantile regression technique makes it possible to differentiate the effect of business angels based on the distribution of the value of the growth rate.

International audience; Cet article propose de discuter dans quelle mesure le financement des entreprises par les business angels (BA) contribue à l’innovation des entreprises au cours de la période 2008-2011. L’analyse est réalisée à partir d’une base de données unique de 432 entreprises françaises financées par l’un des membres du réseau France Angels (Fédération française des réseaux de business angels). La population d’entreprises soutenue est comparée à un contrefactuel constitué de 2 160 individus semblables. Des éléments d’explication de l’engagement dans l’innovation sont fournis à partir d’une enquête qualitative réalisée auprès de BA membres de France Angels et d’entreprises. Ils illustrent l’importance du comportement spécifique des BA au moment du choix des entreprises et durant la période d’accompagnement dans l’explication des écarts de trajectoire. L’estimation d’un modèle économétrique des déterminants de l’innovation, grâce à la méthode des Effets fixes avec décomposition vectorielle rend compte du rôle clef que jouent les business angels dans l’effort d’innovation des entreprises.

Les recherches sur la contribution des Business Angels (BA) a la croissance de l’economie sont encore recentes et relativement peu diffusees, en France notamment. Afin de comparer la dynamique d’entreprises adossees a des BA a des entreprises qui ne le sont pas, nous proposons une methode d’analyse empirique consistant a estimer des modeles multivaries permettant de rendre compte de l’influence de l’intervention des BA sur differents indicateurs de structure de l’entreprise. Notre analyse repose sur une base de donnees unique composee de 300 societes francaises financees par des investisseurs providentiels. Les resultats obtenus permettent de rendre compte de l’influence de l’intervention d’un BA sur les trajectoires des entreprises. Celle-ci exerce un effet contraste sur la croissance de l’effectif et un effet quasi nul sur le chiffre d’affaires mais favorise visiblement la realisation d’investissements productifs. Ces resultats sont robustes dans la mesure ou ils ne dependent pas de l’echantillon contrefactuel retenu. Ils demeurent egalement valides sous differentes specifications des modeles obtenues grâce a l’introduction de diverses variables expliquees.Codes JEL : L25, L26, M13

We have undertaken a comprehensive analysis of cytoplasmic protein phosphorylation in Campylobacter jejuni by mass spectrometric identification of phosphoproteins and localization of the sites of modification by phosphopeptide analyses. Cell extracts, enriched for phosphoproteins using Fe(III) IMAC or commercial phosphoprotein purification kits, were analyzed by 1-D and 2-D SDS-PAGE and subjected to mass fingerprinting by in-gel tryptic digestion and MALDI-TOF MS. Fifty-eight phosphopeptides were identified from 1-D gel bands by nano-LC-MS/MS and automated searching in a C. jejuni ORF database resulting in the unequivocal identification of 36 phosphoproteins of diverse function. In addition to elongation factors and chaperonins, which have been reported to be phosphorylated in other bacteria, the major phosphoproteins included bacterioferritin and superoxide dismutase. The sequences around the phosphorylated Ser and Thr residues are indicative of specific kinases being responsible for some of the modifications. However, many of the other identified proteins are enzymes that have phosphorylated substrates, including ATP, hence other modifications may arise from autophosphorylation. Comparative analyses of IMAC extracts from the Escherichia coli strain AD202 and Helicobacter pylori resulted in the identification of homologs of six of the C. jejuni phosphoproteins, though their overall phosphoproteome maps were distinctly different.

Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) mediate growth cone collapse during development, but their roles in adult brains are not clear. Here we report the findings that the full-length CRMP-3 (p63) is a direct target of calpain that cleaves CRMP-3 at the N terminus (+76 amino acid). Interestingly, activated calpain in response to excitotoxicityin vitroand cerebral ischemiain vivoalso cleaved CRMP-3, and the cleavage product of CRMP-3 (p54) underwent nuclear translocation during neuronal death. The expression of p54 was colocalized with the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotinylated UTP nick end labeling-positive nuclei in glutamate-treated cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) and in ischemic neurons located in the infarct core after focal cerebral ischemia, suggesting that p54 might be involved in neuronal death. Overexpression studies showed that p54, but not p63, caused death of human embryonic kidney cells and CGNs, whereas knock-down CRMP-3 expression by selective small interfering RNA protected neurons against glutamate toxicity. Collectively, these results reveal a novel role of CRMP-3 in that calpain cleavage of CRMP-3 and the subsequent nuclear translocation of the truncated CRMP-3 evokes neuronal death in response to excitotoxicity and cerebral ischemia. Our findings also establish a novel route of how calpain signals neuron death.

Antigen posttranslational modifications, including glycosylation, are recognized by the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system. Analytical approaches, including mass spectrometry and allied techniques, have allowed advances in the enrichment and identification of glyco-antigens, particularly T-cell epitopes. Similarly, major advances have been made in the identification, isolation, and detailed characterization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic glycoproteins and glycopeptides. In particular, peptide centric approaches are now capable of enriching low level glycopeptides from highly complex peptide mixtures. Similarly, advanced mass spectrometry methods allow identification of glycopeptides, characterization of glycans, and mapping of modification sites. Herein, we describe methods developed in our laboratory for the broad study of glycopeptides and illustrate how these approaches can be exploited to further our understanding of the identity and nature of glycopeptide epitopes in various diseases or auto immune disorders.

This text aims at proposing a comparative analysis of the trajectories of companies located in Corsica, and in similar departments of the Mediterranean coast. Through this study we raise the question of the specificity of an island economy compared to a continental territory considered as its closer neighbour. It also deals with the analysis of the way local specificities can influence the firms' growth. From quantile regressions on panel data performed over the period 2004-2010, our results show the strongest sensitivity of the Corsican companies to the financial structure and the superior importance of trade debts in their growth process. On the opposite, whereas the companies located in island economies are supposed primarily oriented towards the local market, we bring some evidence about the sensitivity of the firms' growth to the local factors and how they differ in Corsican compared to Mediterranean companies., Ce texte propose une analyse comparée des trajectoires de croissance d'entreprises implantées d'une part en Corse, de l'autre dans les départements semblables du pourtour méditerranéen. A travers cette étude il s'agit de mettre en évidence la spécificité d'une économie insulaire au regard de territoires continentaux considérés comme ses plus proches voisins et de voir en quoi les spécificités territoriales influent sur la croissance des entreprises. A partir de régressions quantiles sur données d'entreprises en panel au cours de la période 2004-2010, nos résultats montrent la plus forte sensibilité de la croissance des entreprises corses aux dettes et l'importance du crédit interentreprises dans leur fonctionnement. En revanche, alors que les entreprises des économies insulaires sont réputées prioritairement orientées vers le marché local, nous concluons à une sensibilité de la croissance des entreprises corses aux facteurs locaux différente de celle qui prévaut sur le pourtour méditerranéen.

Ce texte propose une analyse comparée des trajectoires de croissance d’entreprises implantées d’une part en Corse, de l’autre dans les départements semblables du pourtour méditerranéen. A travers cette étude il s’agit de mettre en évidence la spécificité d’une économie insulaire au regard de territoires continentaux considérés comme ses plus proches voisins et de voir en quoi les spécificités territoriales influent sur la croissance des entreprises. A partir de régressions quantiles sur données d’entreprises en panel au cours de la période 2004-2010, nos résultats montrent la plus forte sensibilité de la croissance des entreprises corses aux dettes et l’importance du crédit interentreprises dans leur fonctionnement. En revanche, alors que les entreprises des économies insulaires sont réputées prioritairement orientées vers le marché local, nous concluons à une sensibilité de la croissance des entreprises corses aux facteurs locaux différente de celle qui prévaut sur le pourtour méditerranéen.

Antigen posttranslational modifications, including glycosylation, are recognized by the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system. Analytical approaches, including mass spectrometry and allied techniques, have allowed advances in the enrichment and identification of glyco-antigens, particularly T-cell epitopes. Similarly, major advances have been made in the identification, isolation, and detailed characterization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic glycoproteins and glycopeptides. In particular, peptide centric approaches are now capable of enriching low level glycopeptides from highly complex peptide mixtures. Similarly, advanced mass spectrometry methods allow identification of glycopeptides, characterization of glycans, and mapping of modification sites. Herein, we describe methods developed in our laboratory for the broad study of glycopeptides and illustrate how these approaches can be exploited to further our understanding of the identity and nature of glycopeptide epitopes in various diseases or auto immune disorders. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

The structure of pili from the archaeon Methanococcus maripaludis is unlike that of any bacterial pili. However, genetic analysis of the genes involved in the formation of these pili has been lacking until this study. Pili were isolated from a nonflagellated (Δ flaK ) mutant and shown by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to consist primarily of subunits with an apparent molecular mass of 17 kDa. In-frame deletions were created in three genes, MMP0233 , MMP0236 , and MMP0237 , which encode proteins with bacterial type IV pilin-like signal peptides previously identified by in silico methodology as likely candidates for pilus structural proteins. Deletion of MMP0236 or MMP0237 resulted in mutant cells completely devoid of pili on the cell surface, while deletion of the third pilin-like gene, MMP0233 , resulted in cells greatly reduced in the number of pili on the surface. Complementation with the deleted gene in each case returned the cells to a piliated state. Surprisingly, mass spectrometry analysis of purified pili identified the major structural pilin as another type IV pilin-like protein, MMP1685, whose gene is located outside the first pilus locus. This protein was found to be glycosylated with an N-linked branched pentasaccharide glycan. Deletion and complementation analysis confirmed that MMP1685 is required for piliation.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains PA7 and Pa5196 glycosylate their type IVa pilins with α1,5-linked D-arabinofuranose (D-Araf), a rare sugar configuration identical to that found in cell wall polymers of the Corynebacterineae. Despite this chemical identity, the pathway for biosynthesis of α1,5-D-Araf in Gram-negative bacteria is unknown. Bioinformatics analyses pointed to a cluster of seven P. aeruginosa genes, including homologues of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis genes Rv3806c, Rv3790, and Rv3791, required for synthesis of a polyprenyl-linked D-ribose precursor and its epimerization to D-Araf. Pa5196 mutants lacking the orthologues of those genes had non-arabinosylated pilins, poor twitching motility, and significantly fewer surface pili than the wild type even in a retraction-deficient (pilT) background. The Pa5196 pilus system assembled heterologous non-glycosylated pilins efficiently, demonstrating that it does not require post-translationally modified subunits. Together the data suggest that pilins of group IV strains need to be glycosylated for productive subunit-subunit interactions. A recombinant P. aeruginosa PAO1 strain co-expressing the genes for D-Araf biosynthesis, the pilin modification enzyme TfpW, and the acceptor PilA IV produced arabinosylated pili, confirming that the Pa5196 genes identified are both necessary and sufficient. A P. aeruginosa epimerase knock-out could be complemented with the corresponding Mycobacterium smegmatis gene, demonstrating conservation between the systems of the Corynebacterineae and Pseudomonas. This work describes a novel Gram-negative pathway for biosynthesis of D-Araf, a key therapeutic target in Corynebacterineae. © 2011 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

In Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis , DsbA has been shown to be an essential virulence factor and has been observed to migrate to multiple protein spots on two-dimensional electrophoresis gels. In this work, we show that the protein is modified with a 1,156-Da glycan moiety in O -linkage. The results of mass spectrometry studies suggest that the glycan is a hexasaccharide, comprised of N -acetylhexosamines, hexoses, and an unknown monosaccharide. Disruption of two genes within the FTT0789-FTT0800 putative polysaccharide locus, including a galE homologue ( FTT0791 ) and a putative glycosyltransferase ( FTT0798 ), resulted in loss of glycan modification of DsbA. The F. tularensis subsp. tularensis Δ FTT0798 and Δ FTT0791 ::Cm mutants remained virulent in the murine model of subcutaneous tularemia. This indicates that glycosylation of DsbA does not play a major role in virulence under these conditions. This is the first report of the detailed characterization of the DsbA glycan and putative role of the FTT0789-FTT0800 gene cluster in glycan biosynthesis.

This paper investigates the structural and strategic determinants of firmgrowth using a unique data set covering French firms with between 10 and 250employees and active from 1997 through 2007. On the basis of the propositionthat Gibrat’s Law does not hold in this case, we consider a growth model thatcombines different factors that may be determinants of the firm’s growth path.The results, which are based on two families of multinomial logit models, confirmthat firm growth is not only a random process. Instead, size, legal structure,market share and localization are found to have a significant impact on thedevelopment of the individual growth path. These environmental and structuralelements are not the only elements on which to focus when attempting to explainemployment growth on the firm level - strategic factors matter as well. In thisregard, we demonstrate the critical role of labor costs and financial structure asexplanatory variables in firm growth.Keywords: Firm growth, SMEs, Gibrat’s law, French manufacturing, multi-nomial logistic regression.JEL Codes: L25, C51, D22.

Increasing numbers of studies are reporting the modification of prokaryotic proteins with novel glycans. These proteins are often associated with virulence factors of medically important pathogens. Herein, we describe the steps required to characterize prokaryotic glycoproteins by mass spectrometry, using flagellin isolated from Clostridium botulinum strain Langeland as an example. Both "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches will be described for characterizing the purified glycoprotein at the whole protein and peptide levels. The preliminary steps toward structural characterization of novel prokaryotic glycans by mass spectrometry and NMR are also described.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pa5196 produces type IV pilins modified with unusual α1,5-linked d -arabinofuranose (α1,5- d -Ara f ) glycans, identical to those in the lipoarabinomannan and arabinogalactan cell wall polymers from Mycobacterium spp. In this work, we identify a second strain of P. aeruginosa , PA7, capable of expressing arabinosylated pilins and use a combination of site-directed mutagenesis, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (MS), and electron transfer dissociation MS to identify the exact sites and extent of pilin modification in strain Pa5196. Unlike previously characterized type IV pilins that are glycosylated at a single position, those from strain Pa5196 were modified at multiple sites, with modifications of αβ-loop residues Thr64 and Thr66 being important for normal pilus assembly. Trisaccharides of α1,5- d -Ara f were the principal modifications at Thr64 and Thr66, with additional mono- and disaccharides identified on Ser residues within the antiparallel beta sheet region of the pilin. TfpW was hypothesized to encode the pilin glycosyltransferase based on its genetic linkage to the pilin, weak similarity to membrane-bound GT-C family glycosyltransferases (which include the Mycobacterium arabinosyltransferases EmbA/B/C), and the presence of characteristic motifs. Loss of TfpW or mutation of key residues within the signature GT-C glycosyltransferase motif completely abrogated pilin glycosylation, confirming its involvement in this process. A Pa5196 pilA mutant complemented with other Pseudomonas pilins containing potential sites of modification expressed nonglycosylated pilins, showing that TfpW's pilin substrate specificity is restricted. TfpW is the prototype of a new type IV pilin posttranslational modification system and the first reported gram-negative member of the GT-C glycosyltransferase family.

Gap-43 (B-50, neuromodulin) is a presynaptic protein implicated in axonal growth, neuronal differentiation, plasticity, and regeneration. Its activities are regulated by its dynamic interactions with various neuronal proteins, including actin and brain spectrin. Recently we have shown that Gap-43 co-localizes with an axonal protein DPYSL-3 in primary cortical neurons. In the present study we provide evidence that Gap-43 co-localizes and potentially interacts with microtubule-associated protein MAP-2 in adult and fetal rat brain, as well as in primary neuronal cultures. Our studies suggest that this interaction may be developmentally regulated.

In eukaryotes, N-linked protein glycosylation is a universal modification involving addition of preformed oligosaccharides to select Asn-Xaa-Ser/Thr motifs and influencing multiple biological events. We recently demonstrated thatCampylobacter jejuniis the first member of theBacteriato possess an N-linked glycan pathway. In this study, high-resolution magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (HR-MAS NMR) was applied to probe and quantitateC. jejuni N-glycan biosynthesis in vivo. To confirm HR-MAS NMR findings, glycosylation mutants were screened for chicken colonization potential, and glycoproteins were examined by mass spectrometry and lectin blotting. Consistent with the mechanism in eukaryotes, the combined data indicate that bacterial glycans are assembled en bloc, emphasizing the evolutionary conservation of protein N glycosylation. We also show that under the conditions examined, PglG plays no role in glycan biosynthesis, PglI is the glucosyltransferase and the putative ABC transporter, and WlaB (renamed PglK) is required for glycan assembly. These studies underpin the mechanism of N-linked protein glycosylation inBacteriaand provide a simple model system for investigating protein glycosylation and for exploitation in glycoengineering.

Mass spectrometry investigations of partially purified Campylobacter jejuni protein PEB3 showed it to be partially modified with an Asn-linked glycan with a mass of 1406 Da and composed of one hexose, five N-acetylhexosamines and a species of mass 228 Da, consistent with a trideoxydiacetamidohexose. By means of soybean lectin affinity chromatography, a mixture of glycoproteins was obtained from a glycine extract, and two-dimensional gel proteomics analysis led to the identification of at least 22 glycoproteins, predominantly annotated as periplasmic proteins. Glycopeptides were prepared from the glycoprotein mixture by Pronase digestion and gel filtration. The structure of the glycan was determined by using nano-NMR techniques to be GalNAc-alpha1,4-GalNAc-alpha1,4-[Glcbeta1,3-]GalNAc-alpha1,4-GalNAc-alpha1,4-GalNAc-alpha1,3-Bac-beta1,N-Asn-Xaa, where Bac is bacillosamine, 2,4-diacetamido-2,4,6-trideoxyglucopyranose. Protein glycosylation was abolished when the pglB gene was mutated, providing further evidence that the enzyme encoded by this gene is responsible for formation of the glycopeptide N-linkage. Comparison of the pgl locus with that of Neisseria meningitidis suggested that most of the homologous genes are probably involved in the biosynthesis of bacillosamine.

On the more and more tourism-orientated coastline of South Vendée, the commune of Longeville shows a retarded evolution compared to the other communes in the area. Its late urbanization is due to particular geographic and socio-economic conditions. The inland sprawling of the commune resulted in a rural society, « the inside type », taking little interest in the development of the coastline. What is more, the historical evolution produced anarchical plots of sand which hindered a urban development. The launching of the rural regrouping of forest-patches in 1968, initiated by the sandy land owners opened the commune to mass tourism which consequently transformed the Longeville social structure. Hardly had the double obstacle of social and land-plot structure been overcome that the government gave rise to a series of conflicts through its imposition of land freezing., RÉSUMÉ Sur un littoral sud-vendéen orienté de plus en plus vers le tourisme, la commune de Longeville apparaît en retrait par rapport à ses voisines. Son urbanisation tardive, la commune la doit à des conditions géographiques et socio-économiques particulières. La profondeur de la commune a généré une société rurale de type « intérieur », peu intéressée au développement de la façade maritime. Par ailleurs, l'histoire a produit dans le sable, des parcellaires anarchiques, préjudiciables au développement urbain. Le lancement du remembrement rural de la forêt en 1968, à l'initiative des propriétaires du sable, a ouvert la commune au tourisme de masse, lequel a transformé à son tour la société longevillaise. Le double obstacle des structures sociales et parcellaires était à peine surmonté que l'Etat, en imposant le gel de l'espace dunaire, a suscité des conflits en chaîne., Tessier Luc. Une urbanisation retardée et conflictuelle : Longeville-sur-Mer . In: Norois, n°133-135, Janvier-Septembre 1987. Espaces côtiers et sociétés littorales. Colloque international des 28, 29 et 30 novembre 1986 à Nantes. pp. 169-179.