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Abstract Interpersonal Distance (IPD) is defined as the physical distance that individuals maintain between themselves and others during social interactions. While literature has extensively focused on this everyday social behavior, how IPD changes throughout the lifespan remains an open question. In this study, 864 participants, aged 3–89 years, performed the Stop Distance Paradigm in their real-life environments, and we measured the distance they kept from both familiar and unfamiliar others during social interactions. We found that IPD not only differs based on the identity of the other person (familiar versus unfamiliar) but critically declines as a function of age, following two distinct non-linear trends for familiar and unfamiliar others. Moreover, behavioral variability also undergoes a lifetime development, with IPD becoming more stable as age increases. Overall, the present study suggests that IPD is a complex and acquired behavior that changes throughout the lifespan and varies according to individual and situational variables.

Summary: Cooperation and competition shape everyday human interactions and impact individuals’ chances of success in different domains. Using a virtual Stroop test, classically employed to assess general cognitive interference, we examined the impact of social context (cooperation and competition) and other’s ability (higher and lower performers) on performance, perceived stress, and autonomic activity. In Experiment 1, we found that both cooperation with a lower performer and competition with a higher performer led to similar enhancement in performance. However, only competition with a more skilled opponent induced an increase in perceived stress and physiological activity. Experiment 2 further demonstrated that these effects persisted even with prolonged exposure to these contexts. In summary, cooperation can be just as effective as competition in improving individuals’ performance. However, cooperation does not carry the same level of stress and physiological burden as the competitive context, representing a healthier and more optimal way to boost individual performance.

Computerized Stroop tasks have proven to be valuable tools in experimental and clinical psychology, providing reliable and reproducible assessments of cognitive processes. This paper presents the Influencer-Based Virtual Reality Stroop Test (IB-VRST), an innovative application that allows users to perform an immersive Stroop test while exposed to various virtual influencers. These influencers are categorized as task-related and non-task-related distractors, and elements of social presence implemented through competitive and collaborative virtual avatars. To validate this application and analyze the effects of these influencers on performance and stress levels, we conducted two experiments where we collected quantitative data using application logs and biometric sensors, and qualitative data using pre- and post-experiment questionnaires and self-reported stress ratings. Results show that IB-VRST successfully creates an immersive and intuitive experience that prompts the Stroop effect. While distractors generally impair performance and increase stress levels, social presence elements generally improve performance and reduce stress, except when participants compete against a more skilled opponent. This study adds to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive examination of the effects of virtual influencing factors on immersive Stroop tasks, thereby supporting the development of more engaging, immersive, and effective virtual Stroop tests.