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Background and purpose Some studies have shown that air pollution, often assessed by thin particulate matter with diameter below 2.5 µg/m3 (PM2.5), may contribute to severe COVID‐19 courses, as well as play a role in the onset and evolution of multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the impact of air pollution on COVID‐19 has never been explored specifically amongst patients with MS (PwMS). This retrospective observational study aims to explore associations between PM2.5 and COVID‐19 severity amongst PwMS. Methods Data were retrieved from an Italian web‐based platform (MuSC‐19) which includes PwMS with COVID‐19. PM2.5 2016–2018 average concentrations were provided by the Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service. Italian patients inserted in the platform from 15 January 2020 to 9 April 2021 with a COVID‐19 positive test were included. Ordered logistic regression models were used to study associations between PM2.5 and COVID‐19 severity. Results In all, 1087 patients, of whom 13% required hospitalization and 2% were admitted to an intensive care unit or died, were included. Based on the multivariate analysis, higher concentrations of PM2.5 increased the risk of worse COVID‐19 course (odds ratio 1.90; p = 0.009). Conclusions Even if several other factors explain the unfavourable course of COVID‐19 in PwMS, the role of air pollutants must be considered and further investigated., Air pollution, often assessed by particulate matter with diameter below 2.5 µg/m3, may contribute to severe COVID‐19 courses. 1087 patients were included, of whom 13% required hospitalization and 2% were admitted to an intensive care unit or died. Even if several other factors explain the unfavourable course of COVID‐19 in patients with multiple sclerosis, the role of air pollutants must be considered and further investigated.

Background Despite being long neglected, olfaction has recently become a focus of intense research in neuroscience, as smell impairment has been consistently documented in both neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases. Considering the close anatomo-functional correlations between the limbic system and the central olfactory structures, we investigated olfaction in a population of patients with autoimmune encephalitis (AE). Methods Nineteen adult subjects (14 males, median age 64 years) diagnosed with definite (14/19) or possible (5/19) AE and followed for ≥ 6 months were enrolled. The Brief Smell Identification Test (B-SIT), a 12-item, forced-choice, scratch-and-sniff measure, was used to assess the patients’ olfactory function in comparison with a group of sex- and age-matched healthy controls (HC). According to the B-SIT score, subjects were classified as anosmic (

Objectives Antibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform 65 (GAD-Ab) have been found in different severe neurological conditions associated with altered synthesis of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Serum GAD-Ab can be found in up to 90 % of patients with Type 1 Diabetes mellitus (T1DM), mostly at relatively low concentrations, while high concentrations of GAD-ab are thought to be more frequently associate to a neurological condition, with levels 100-folds higher than those found in T1DM. Although CSF testing is recommended when suspecting a GAD-associated neurological syndrome, no commercial immunoassay is validated for this use and no cut-off is internationally recognized to support the diagnosis. Methods In this study we validated CSF testing of GAD-Ab on an automated chemiluminescence (CLIA) immunoassay that had previously shown good agreement with ELISA on serum. Results We tested 43 CSF from patients with typical GAD-associated neurological disorders and patients with other neurological conditions, identifying a clinical cut-off of 18 kIU/L that discriminated GAD-disease with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.921. CLIA showed good analytical performances on repeatability and recovery tests in CSF and confirmed an excellent agreement with ELISA. Conclusions GAD-Ab associated neurological disorders are rare but CSF testing for GAD-Ab is a common request for neurologists when suspecting an insidious autoimmune central nervous system disease. CLIA platforms are expected to be increasingly adopted in clinical laboratories due to their flexibility and reliability, therefore studies on decisional levels should be implemented for improving the interpretation and utilization of laboratory data.

Background and ObjectivesWe sought to identify early factors associated with relapse and outcome in paediatric-onset myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disorders (MOGAD).MethodsIn a multicenter retrospective cohort of pediatric MOGAD (≤18 years), onset features and treatment were compared in patients with monophasic vs relapsing disease (including cases with follow-up ≥12 months after onset or relapse at any time) and in patients with final Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) 0 vs ≥1 at last follow-up (including cases with follow-up >3 months after last event or EDSS0 at any time). Multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate factors associated with relapsing disease course and EDSS ≥ 1 at final follow-up.ResultsSeventy-five children were included (median onset age 7 years; median 30 months of follow-up). Presentation with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis was more frequent in children aged 8 years or younger (66.7%, 28/42) than in older patients (30.3%, 10/33) (p= 0.002), whereas presentation with optic neuritis was more common in children older than 8 years (57.6%, 19/33) than in younger patients (21.4%, 9/42) (p= 0.001). 40.0% (26/65) of patients relapsed. Time to first relapse was longer in children aged 8 years or younger than in older patients (median 18 vs 4 months) (p= 0.013). Factors at first event independently associated with lower risk of relapsing disease course were immunotherapy p= 0.009), corticosteroid treatment for ≥5 weeks (6.7-fold reduced odds of relapse, OR 0.15, 95% CI 0.03–0.80,p= 0.026), and abnormal optic nerves on onset MRI (12.5-fold reduced odds of relapse, OR 0.08, 95% CI 0.01–0.50,p= 0.007). 21.1% (15/71) had EDSS ≥ 1 at final follow-up. Patients with a relapsing course had a higher proportion of final EDSS ≥ 1 (37.5%, 9/24) than children with monophasic disease (12.8%, 5/39) (p= 0.022, univariate analysis). Each 1-point increment in worst EDSS at onset was independently associated with 6.7-fold increased odds of final EDSS ≥ 1 (OR 6.65, 95% CI 1.33–33.26,p= 0.021).DiscussionAt first attack of pediatric MOGAD, early immunotherapy, longer duration of corticosteroid treatment, and abnormal optic nerves on MRI seem associated with lower risk of relapse, whereas higher disease severity is associated with greater risk of final disability (EDSS ≥ 1).

Autoimmune encephalitis associated with antibodies against neuronal surface targets (NSAE) are rare but still underrecognized conditions that affect adult and pediatric patients. Clinical guidelines have recently been published with the aim of providing diagnostic clues regardless of antibody status. These syndromes are potentially treatable but the choice of treatment and its timing, as well as differential diagnoses, long-term management, and clinical and paraclinical follow-up, remain major challenges. In the absence of evidence-based guidelines, management of these conditions is commonly based on single-center expertise. Taking into account different published expert recommendations in addition to the multicenter experience of the Italian Working Group on Autoimmune Encephalitis, both widely accepted and critical aspects of diagnosis, management and particularly of immunotherapy for NSAE have been reviewed and are discussed. Finally, we provide consensus-based practical advice for managing hospitalization and follow-up of patients with NSAE.

In this retrospective multicenter study, we evaluated the safety of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in patients harboring autoantibodies targeting neuronal surface and/or synaptic antigens.From eight Italian Neurology Units, we included patients with: a) serum and/or CSF positivity for specific neuronal autoantibodies; b) a compatible neurological syndrome; and c) available follow-up ≥6 weeks after vaccination with any of the approved SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Demographics, clinical data, and information regarding previous SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination were collected. Disease relapses were considered "post-infectious" or "post-vaccination" when occurring within 6 weeks from infection/vaccination.We included 66 patients; 7/66 (11%) had a previous history of SARS-CoV-2 infection and 1/7 (14%) had post-infection relapses. BNT162b2-Pfizer-BioNTec was administered in 55 cases (83.3%) and mRNA-1273-Moderna in 11 (16.7%). The median number of doses administered per patient was 2 (1-3) and50% of patients did not experience side effects. Five patients (8%) had post-vaccination relapses (seizure 3/5); 4/5 improved after immunotherapy, while one did not receive immunotherapy and worsened. Patients with post-vaccination relapses had higher disability scores at vaccination (p = 0.025), a trend favoring Leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 LGI1 glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) antibodies (p = 0.054) and shorter time from last relapse (p = 0.057).Our data support the safety of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with neurological disorders associated with antibodies to neuronal and synaptic antigens.

Epidemiologic data on neuronal surface antibody (NSAb)-associated autoimmune encephalitides (NSAE) are scarce and heterogeneous. We review our 13-year-long biobank-data collection and provide the incidence of NSAE in two Italian provinces (approx. Population of 1,400,000) over a 5-year period (July 2013-June 2018). NSAbs were diagnosed in 75 out of 1179 tested patients (6.4%). The most common NSAbs were anti-LGI1 (30 cases), followed by NMDAR (24). Eleven cases of NSAE were diagnosed in Treviso and Trento provinces with an estimated incidence of 1.54 per 1,000,000 population (LGI1-encephalitis 0.84; C.I. 0.38-1.88). LGI1-E is the most frequent NSAE among adults.

Background: The MuSC-19 project is an Italian cohort study open to international partners that collects data on multiple sclerosis (MS) patients with COVID-19. During the second wave of the pandemic, serological tests became routinely available. Objective: To evaluate the seroprevalence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies according to the use of disease-modifying therapy (DMT) in a subset of patients included in the MuSC-19 data set who had undergone a serological test. Methods: We evaluated the association between positive serological test results and time elapsed since infection onset, age, sex, Expanded Disability Status Scale score, comorbidities and DMT exposure using a multivariable logistic model. Results: Data were collected from 423 patients (345 from Italy, 61 from Turkey and 17 from Brazil) with a serological test performed during follow-up. Overall, 325 out of 423 tested patients (76.8%) had a positive serological test. At multivariate analysis, therapy with anti-CD20 was significantly associated with a reduced probability of developing antibodies after COVID-19 (odds ratio (OR) = 0.20, p = 0.002). Conclusion: Patients with MS maintain the capacity to develop humoral immune response against SARS-COV-2, although to a lesser extent when treated with anti-CD20 drugs. Overall, our results are reassuring with respect to the possibility to achieve sufficient immunization with vaccination.

Background: It is unclear how multiple sclerosis (MS) affects the severity of Covid-19. Methods: Hospitalization, Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission and death after Covid-19 diagnosis of 1362 MS patients were compared to the age and sex-matched Italian population in a retrospective observational case-cohort study with population-based control. The observed vs the expected events were compared in the whole MS cohort and in different subgroups (higher-risk: EDSS>3 or at least one comorbidity, lower-risk: EDSS

Background and purpose : Autoimmune encephalitides (AE) include a spectrum of neurological disorders whose diagnosis revolves around the detection of neuronal antibodies (Abs). Consensus-based diagnostic criteria (AE-DC) allow clinic-serological subgrouping of AE, with unclear prognostic implications. The impact of AE-DC on patients’ management was studied, focusing on the subgroupofAb-negative-AE. Methods: This was a retrospective multicenter study on patients fulfilling AE-DC. All patients underwent Ab testing with commercial cell-based assays (CBAs) and, when available, in-house assays (immunohistochemistry, live/fixed CBAs, neuronal cultures) that contributed to defining final categories. Patients were classified as Ab-positive-AE [N-methyl-d-aspartate-receptor encephalitis (NMDAR-E), Ab-positive limbic encephalitis (LE), definite-AE] or Ab-negative-AE (Ab-negative-LE, probable-AE, possible-AE). Results: Commercial CBAs detected neuronal Abs in 70/118 (59.3%) patients. Testing 37/48 Ab-negative cases, in-house assays identified Abs in 11 patients (29.7%). A hundred and eighteen patients fulfilled the AE-DC, 81 (68.6%) with Ab-positive-AE (Ab-positive-LE, 40; NMDAR-E, 32; definite-AE, nine) and 37 (31.4%) with Ab-negative-AE (Ab-negative-LE, 17; probable/possible-AE, 20). Clinical phenotypes were similar in Ab-positive-LE versus Ab-negative-LE. Twenty-four/118 (20.3%) patients had tumors, and 19/118 (16.1%) relapsed, regardless of being Ab-positive or Ab-negative. Ab-positive-AE patients were treated earlier than Ab-negative-AE patients (P=0.045), responded more frequently to treatments (92.3% vs. 65.6%, P&nbsp

Anti-myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies (MOG-Ab) recently emerged as a potential biomarker in patients with inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system. We here compare the clinical and laboratory findings observed in a cohort of MOG-Ab seropositive and seronegative cases and describe IgG subclass analysis results. Consecutive serum samples referred to Verona University Neuropathology Laboratory for aquaporin-4 (AQP4)-Ab and/or MOG-Ab testing were analysed between March 2014 and May 2017. The presence of AQP4-Ab was determined using a cell-based assay. A live cell immunofluorescence assay was used for the detection of MOG-IgG and IgG subclass analysis. Among 454 analysed samples, 29 were excluded due to AQP4-Ab positivity or to the final demonstration of a disorder not compatible with MOG-Ab. We obtained clinical data in 154 out of 425 cases. Of these, 22 subjects resulted MOG-Ab positive. MOG-Ab positive patients were mainly characterised by the involvement of the optic nerve and/or spinal cord. Half of the cases presented relapses and the recovery was usually partial. Brain MRI was heterogeneous while short lesions were the prevalent observation on spinal cord MRI. MOG-Ab titre usually decreased in non-relapsing cases. In all MOG-IgG positive cases, we observed IgG1 antibodies, which were predominant in most subjects. IgG2 (5/22), IgG3 (9/22) and IgG4 (3/22) antibodies were also detectable. We confirm that MOG-Ab-related syndromes have distinct features in the spectrum of demyelinating conditions, and we describe the possible role of the different IgG subclasses in this condition. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00415-017-8635-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

This document presents the guidelines for onconeural antibody testing that have been developed following a consensus process built on questionnaire-based surveys, internet contacts, and discussions at workshops of the sponsoring Italian Association of Neuroimmunology (AINI) congresses. Essential clinical information on paraneoplastic neurological syndromes, indications and limits of onconeural antibody testing, instructions for result interpretation, and an agreed laboratory protocol (Appendix) are reported for the communicative community of neurologists and clinical pathologists.

Leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 (LGI1) and contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CASPR2) neurological autoimmunity in adults has been associated with various clinical syndromes involving central, peripheral and autonomic nervous system, while data in children is limited. We perform the first systematic literature review on paediatric LGI1 and CASPR2 autoimmunity, with focus on clinical data, in order to contribute to the definition of clinical features of LGI1 and CASPR2 autoimmunity in paediatric age and favour early diagnosis. Additionally, we report the youngest-to-date case of Morvan syndrome. We identified 37 published paediatric cases of LGI1 and/or CASPR2 autoimmunity. Most frequent syndromes were encephalitis in LGI1-positive and isolated epilepsy in CASPR2-positive children, while syndromes with predominant peripheral symptoms were most frequent in double-positive children. With the limitations imposed by the low number of cases, differences to published adult cohorts included: absence of faciobrachial dystonic seizures and hyponatremia in patients with LGI1-positive encephalitis; slightly higher proportion of isolated epilepsy syndromes in CASPR2-positive patients; absence of tumour in the whole cohort.

Circulating and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) neurofilament light chain (NfL) levels represent a reliable indicator of disease activity and axonal damage in different neuroinflammatory conditions. Recently, high CSF NfL levels have been detected in active autoimmune encephalitis, as opposed to significant lower levels after clinical improvement. The aim of the present study was to evaluate serum and CSF NfL concentration in patients with autoimmune encephalitis and to analyse the association between NfL levels and clinical, MRI, and CSF data. We retrospectively included 25 patients with neurological syndromes associated with autoantibodies to neuronal cell surface antigens and we collected clinical, MRI, CSF, and follow-up data. Using an ultrasensitive method (Simoa, Quanterix), we measured NfL levels in serum and CSF samples of all patients and in 25 sera of healthy controls. Serum NfL levels were higher in all cases, including 20 patients with inflammatory MRI/CSF features and 5 non-inflammatory cases (median 16.9 pg/ml, range 4.5–90) than in controls (median 6.9 pg/ml, range 2.7–12.8; p

Objective To evaluate disease activity according to rituximab (RTX) induction and maintenance regimens in a multicenter real-life dataset of NMOSD patients. Methods This is an observational-retrospective multicentre study including patients with NMOSD treated with RTX in 21 Italian and 1 Swiss centers. Demographics, relapse rate and adverse events over the follow-up were summarized taking into account induction strategy (two-1 g infusions at a 15-day interval (IND-A) vs. 375 mg/m2/week infusions for one month (IND-B)) and maintenance therapy (regimen A (M-A) with fixed time-points infusions vs. regimen B (M-B) based on cytofluorimetric driven reinfusion regimens, the least further subdivided according to CD19+ B cells (M-B1) or CD27+ memory B cells (M-B2) monitoring). Results 131 subjects were enrolled, 127 patients completed the induction regimen and 119 patients had at least one follow-up visit and were included in the outcome analysis. Median follow-up was 1.7 years (range 0.1–11.6). Annualized relapse rate (ARR) was 1.7 in the year before RTX start and decreased to 0.19 during the follow-up. Both ARR and Time to first relapse (TTFR) analysis showed a trend toward an increased disease activity for IND-B and M-A. No patients with MT-B2 experienced relapses during the follow-up. Number of relapses in the year before RTX initiation and having received a previous treatment were significantly associated with higher ARR and reduced TTFR in the multivariate analysis. Interpretation We confirm RTX efficacy in NMOSD patients. Use of specific induction and maintenance protocols is warranted in order to foster RTX efficacy and to reduce costs and side effects.

Purpose: Radiological hallmark of autoimmune limbic encephalitis (LE) is a hyperintense signal in MRI T2-weighted images of mesial temporal structures. We aimed to identify conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features that can help distinguish LE from temporal glioma. Methods: Brain MRIs of 25 patients affected by antibody-positive autoimmune LE, 24 patients affected by temporal glioma (tumor group), and 5 negative controls were retrospectively blindly evaluated in random order. Results: Ten brain MRIs from the LE group were correctly recognized; one additional patient with mesial temporal hyperintensity with anti-AK5 abs LE was wrongly diagnosed as having a tumor. The brain MRIs of the remaining 14 of the 25 patients with LE were judged negative or, in three cases, showed features not typical for LE. In the tumor group, all MRIs showed pathological alterations diagnosed as tumors in 22/24 cases and as LE in two (2/22, 9%). Unilateral lesions were more common in tumors than in neuroradiologically abnormal LE (96% vs. 18%, p < 0.001). T2/FLAIR hyperintensity of the parahippocampal gyrus was associated more with tumor than with LE (71% vs. 18%) (p = 0,009), as T2/FLAIR hyperintensity of extralimbic structures (p = 0.015), edema (p = 0.041), and mass effect (p = 0.015). Maintenance of gray/white matter distinction was strongly associated with LE (91% vs. 17%, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Conventional brain MRI is a fundamental tool in the differential diagnosis between LE and glioma. Bilateral involvement and maintenance of gray/white matter distinction at the cortical/subcortical interface are highly suggestive of LE.

This document presents the guidelines for testing antibodies against neuronal surface antigens that have been developed following a consensus process built on questionnaire-based surveys, internet contacts, and discussions at workshops of the sponsoring Italian Association of Neuroimmunology (AINI) congresses. Essential clinical information on autoimmune encephalitis associated with antibodies against neuronal surface antigens, indications and limits of testing for such antibodies, instructions for result interpretation, and an agreed laboratory protocol (Appendix A) are reported for the communicative community of neurologists and clinical pathologists.

This document presents the guidelines for anti-aquaporin-4 (AQP4) antibody testing that has been developed following a consensus process built on questionnaire-based surveys, internet contacts, and discussions at workshops of the sponsoring Italian Association of Neuroimmunology (AINI) congresses. Essential clinical information on neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders, indications and limits of anti-AQP4 antibody testing, instructions for result interpretation, and an agreed laboratory protocol (Appendix) are reported for the communicative community of neurologists and clinical pathologists.

To contribute to characterize electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in pediatric anti- N-methyl-d-aspartate (anti-NMDA) receptor encephalitis, we reviewed electroclinical data of 5 children with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis diagnosed in our department. We identified 4 longitudinal electroencephalographic phases: in the early phase, background activity was normal, with intermixed nonreactive slow waves; in the florid phase, background activity deteriorated with appearance of sequences of peculiar rhythmic theta and/or delta activity unrelated to clinical changes, unresponsive to stimuli and antiepileptic medications; in the recovery phase, these sequences decreased and reactive posterior rhythm re-emerged; electroencephalogram normalized 2 to 5 months after onset. In conclusion, in the presence of evocative clinical history, recognizing a characteristic longitudinal electroencephalographic activity could provide ancillary aspects addressing the diagnosis and the overall management of children with anti- N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis; in particular, knowing that peculiar and recurrent paroxysmal nonepileptic rhythmic theta-delta patterns can occur in these patients could help distinguish paroxysmal epileptic and nonepileptic electroencephalographic activity.

Objective: A study was undertaken to describe the clinical spectrum, voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) complex antibody specificities, and central nervous system localization of antibody binding in 29 patients diagnosed with Morvan syndrome (MoS). Methods: Clinical data were collected using questionnaires. Radioimmunoassay, cell-based assays, and mouse brain immunohistochemistry were used to characterize the serum antibodies. Results: Neuromyotonia (100%), neuropsychiatric features (insomnia 89.7%, confusion 65.5%, amnesia 55.6%, hallucinations 51.9%), dysautonomia (hyperhidrosis 86.2%, cardiovascular 48.3%), and neuropathic pain (62.1%) were the most common manifestations. A total of 93.1% of MoS patients were male. VGKC-complex antibodies were present in 23 of 29 (79%) MoS patients at referral; 24 of 27 available sera had CASPR2, LGI1, or both CASPR2 and LGI1 antibodies (3 also with contactin-2 antibodies). CASPR2 antibodies were generally higher titer than LGI1 antibodies. Tumors (41.4%), mainly thymomas, were associated with CASPR2 antibodies and a poor prognosis, whereas LGI1 antibodies were associated with serum hyponatremia. In brain tissue regions including the hypothalamus, raphe, and locus coeruleus, commercial antibodies to LGI1 bound to neuronal cell bodies including the antidiuretic hormone-secreting and orexin-secreting hypothalamic neurons, whereas CASPR2 commercial antibodies bound more often to the neuropil. MoS antibodies bound similarly, but there was evidence of additional antibodies in some sera that were not adsorbed by LGI1- or CASPR2-expressing cells and bound to mouse Caspr2−/− tissue. Interpretation: MoS is clinically distinct from other VGKC-complex antibody-associated conditions, and usually is associated with high-titer CASPR2 antibodies, often accompanied by lower-titer LGI1 antibodies. CASPR2 and LGI1 antibodies bind to multiple brain regions, which helps to explain the multifocal clinical features of this disease, but other antibodies are likely to play a role in some patients and need to be characterized in future studies. ANN NEUROL 2012

Background Relatively few studies have searched for potentially pathogenic antibodies in non-paraneoplastic patients with cerebellar ataxia. Methods and Results We first screened sera from 52 idiopathic ataxia patients for binding of serum IgG antibodies to cerebellar neurons. One strong-binding serum was selected for immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry, which resulted in the identification of contactin-associated protein 2 (CASPR2) as a major antigen. CASPR2 antibodies were then found by a cell-based assay in 9/88 (10%) ataxia patients, compared to 3/144 (2%) multiple sclerosis or dementia controls (p=0.011). CASPR2 is strongly expressed in the cerebellum, only partly in association with voltage-gated potassium channels. Conclusions Prospective studies are now needed to see whether identification of CASPR2 antibodies has relevance for the diagnosis and treatment of idiopathic cerebellar ataxia.

Antibodies to the N-methyl-d-aspartate subtype of glutamate receptor have been associated with a newly-described encephalopathy that has been mainly identified in young females with ovarian tumours. However, the full clinical spectrum and treatment responses are not yet clear. We established a sensitive cell-based assay for detection of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibodies in serum or cerebrospinal fluid, and a quantitative fluorescent immunoprecipitation assay for serial studies. Although there was marked intrathecal synthesis of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibodies, the absolute levels of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibodies were higher in serum than in cerebrospinal fluid. N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibodies were of the immunoglobulin G1 subclass and were able to activate complement on N-methyl d-aspartate receptor-expressing human embryonic kidney cells. From questionnaires returned on 44 N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody-positive patients, we identified a high proportion without a detected tumour (35/44, 80: follow-up 3.6-121 months, median 16 months). Among the latter were 15 adult females (43), 10 adult males (29) and 10 children (29), with four in the first decade of life. Overall, there was a high proportion (29) of non-Caucasians. Good clinical outcomes, as defined by reductions in modified Rankin scores, correlated with decreased N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody levels and were associated with early (

The concept of antibody mediated CNS disorders is relatively recent. The classical CNS paraneoplastic neurological syndromes are thought to be T cell mediated, and the onconeural antibodies merely biomarkers for the presence of the tumour. Thus it was thought that antibodies rarely, if ever, cause CNS disease. Over the past 10 years, identification of autoimmune forms of encephalitis with antibodies against neuronal surface antigens, particularly the voltage gated potassium channel complex proteins or the glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, have shown that CNS disorders, often without associated tumours, can be antibody mediated and benefit from immunomodulatory therapies. The clinical spectrum of these diseases is not yet fully explored, there may be others yet to be discovered and some types of more common disorders (eg, epilepsy or psychosis) may prove to have an autoimmune basis. Here, the known conditions associated with neuronal surface antibodies are briefly reviewed, some general aspects of these syndromes are considered and guidelines that could help in the recognition of further disorders are suggested.

Altres ajuts: This study was funded by the Eugene Devic European Network (EDEN) project (ERA-Net ERARE 2: http://www.erare.eu/financed-projects/eden). Euroimmun AG provided assay kits for groups from Denmark and Hungary at 50% discount, and at no cost to both Italian groups. The work in Oxford was supported by the National Health Service National Specialised Commissioning Group for Neuromyelitis Optica and the National Institute for Health Research Oxford Biomedical Research Centre. Competing interests: AS is funded by Fundació la Marató de TV3 (101610). FT is enrolled in the doctoral programme SPIN funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF; project W1206). ZI is funded by Lundbeckfonden and Scleroseforeningen of Denmark. AB has received a grant from Bayer Healthcare on NMO. LZ would like to thank RH for her excellent technical assistance with the assay. RH was supported by a Schrödinger fellowship funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF; project J3230). CC acknowledges funding from Fundació la Marató de TV3 (493/C/2012). FP acknowledges funding from the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (Competence Network Multiple Sclerosis KKNMS). BW acknowledges funding from the Dietmar-Hopp-Stiftung and from Merck Serono. RM and AR acknowledge Nathalie Dufay from NeuroBioTec-Banques (Hospices Civils de Lyon, France) and funding from Association pour la Recherche sur la Sclerose en Plaques (ARSEP). PW has received speaker honoraria from Biogen Idec and Euroimmun AG; holds a patent with Oxford University for LGI1/CASPR2 antibodies, licensed to Euroimmun AG; and for GABAAR antibodies. MR reports other from University Hospital of Innsbruck (TILAK), during the conduct of the study; personal fees from Euroimmun, outside the submitted work. AS has received compensation for consulting services and speaking from Bayer-Schering, Merck-Serono, Biogen-Idec, Sanofi-Aventis, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd and Novartis. HHN has received travel funding and speaker honoraria from Novartis Healthcare, Biogen Idec, Genzyme Denmark and Teva Denmark. ZI reports grants from Lundbeckfonden, Denmark; Scleroseforeningen, Denmark, during the conduct of the study; personal fees from compensation for consulting services and speaking from Bayer-Schering, Biogen-Idec, Merck-Serono, Novartis, Sanofi-Aventis, and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, outside the submitted work. TB reports non-financial support from Euroimmun AG, during the conduct of the study. KR is shareholder and an employee of Euroimmun AG. AB reports grants from Bayer Heathcare, personal fees from Biogen Idec, personal fees from Merck Serono, personal fees from Teva, personal fees from Novartis, personal fees from Genzyme, other from Biogen Idec, other from Novartis, other from Genzyme, other from Roche, other from Alexion Pharmaceuticals, outside the submitted work. LG received congress and travel compensations from Euroimmun. AB received honoraria for serving in the scientific advisory boards of Almirall, Bayer, Biogen Idec, Genzyme, and received speaker honoraria from Biogen Idec, Genzyme, Novartis, TEVA with approval by the Director of AOU San Luigi University Hospital; his institution has received grant support from Bayer, BiogenIdec, Merck, Novartis, TEVA from the Italian Multiple Sclerosis Society, Associazione Ricerca Biomedica ONLUS and San Luigi ONLUS. LZ reports personal fees from Teva Pharmaceutical, personal fees from Novartis, outside the submitted work. MC has received compensation for consulting services and speaking honoraria from Bayer Schering Pharma, Merk Serono, Biogen-Idec, Teva Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi-Aventis, Genzyme, and Novartis. XM has received speaking honoraria and travel expenses for scientific meetings, has been a steering committee member of clinical trials or participated in advisory boards of clinical trials in the past years with Bayer Schering Pharma, Biogen Idec, EMD Merck Serono, Genentech, Genzyme, Novartis, Sanofi-Aventis, Teva Phramaceuticals, Almirall and Roche. MT has received compensation for consulting services and speaking from Bayer-Schering, Merk-Serono, Biogen-Idec, Teva, Sanofi-Aventis, and Novartis. AS reports receiving grants from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey-Health Sciences Research (grants numbers 109S070 and 112S052); and also unrestricted grants from Bayer-Schering AG and Merck-Serono to their Neurology Department Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit. AS also reports receiving honoraria or consultation fees Biogen Idec, Novartis and Teva. He had received travel and registration coverage for attending several national or international congresses or symposia, from Merck Serono, Biogen Idec, Novartis, Teva, Bayer-Schering and Allergan. AA received grants to her department from The Scientific and Technological Research Institute of Turkey-Health Sciences (grants numbers 109S070 and 112S052), and she also received honoraria, research and travel grants from Teva, Merck-Serono, Gen Ilac, Bayer-Schering, Novartis. FP has received travel funding, speaker honoraria and personal compensation for activities on advisory boards and steering committees from Bayer, Biogen Idec, Alexion, Chugai, MedImmune, MerckSerono, Novartis, Teva, and Sanofi Genzyme. He has received grants from the Guthy Jackson Charitable Foundation and the National Multiple Sclerosis Society of the USA. OA reports grants from German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), during the conduct of the study; German Research Foundation (DFG); Hertie Foundation; Biogen; Novartis; Bayer; outside the submitted work; and Honoraria for consultancy and speaking by Biogen, Novartis, Bayer Schering, Teva, Chugai, Genzyme, MedImmune, and Merck Serono. BW reports personal fees from Bayer Healthcare, grants and personal fees from Biogen, Merck Serono; Genzyme, a Sanofi Company; Novartis Pharmaceuticals; TEVA Pharma; grants from Biotest, German Ministry of Education and Research; Dietmar Hopp Foundation; outside the submitted work. H-PH reports personal fees from MedImmune, outside the submitted work. MP is an employee of and holds stock in Euroimmun AG. PT reports non-financial support from Roche Pharmaceuticals, outside the submitted work. SS is an employee of Euroimmun AG. AV is on the Advisory Board for Neurology; was an associate editor for Brain; holds patents with Oxford University for MuSK, LGI1/CASPR2, and GABAAR antibodies, and receives a proportion of royalties. RM reports personal fees from MedImmune, personal fees and non-financial support from Biogen, non-financial support from Merck-Serono, non-financial support from Teva, non-financial support from Novartis, non-financial support from Sanofi, outside the submitted work. Antibodies to cell surface central nervous system proteins help to diagnose conditions which often respond to immunotherapies. The assessment of antibody assays needs to reflect their clinical utility. We report the results of a multicentre study of aquaporin (AQP) 4 antibody (AQP4-Ab) assays in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD). Coded samples from patients with neuromyelitis optica (NMO) or NMOSD (101) and controls (92) were tested at 15 European diagnostic centres using 21 assays including live (n=3) or fixed cell-based assays (n=10), flow cytometry (n=4), immunohistochemistry (n=3) and ELISA (n=1). Results of tests on 92 controls identified 12assays as highly specific (0-1 false-positive results). 32 samples from 50 (64%) NMO sera and 34 from 51 (67%) NMOSD sera were positive on at least two of the 12 highly specific assays, leaving 35 patients with seronegative NMO/spectrum disorder (SD). On the basis of a combination of clinical phenotype and the highly specific assays, 66 AQP4-Ab seropositive samples were used to establish the sensitivities (51.5-100%) of all 21 assays. The specificities (85.8-100%) were based on 92 control samples and 35 seronegative NMO/SD patient samples. The cell-based assays were most sensitive and specific overall, but immunohistochemistry or flow cytometry could be equally accurate in specialist centres. Since patients with AQP4-Ab negative NMO/SD require different management, the use of both appropriate control samples and defined seronegative NMOSD samples is essential to evaluate these assays in a clinically meaningful way. The process described here can be applied to the evaluation of other antibody assays in the newly evolving field of autoimmune neurology.

Background: The spectrum of autoimmune neurological diseases associated with voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC)-complex antibodies (Abs) ranges from peripheral nerve disorders to limbic encephalitis. Recently, low titers of VGKC-complex Abs have also been reported in neurodegenerative disorders, but their clinical relevance is unknown. Objective: The aim of the study was to explore the prevalence of VGKC-complex Abs in slow-progression motor neuron disease (MND). Methods: We compared 11 patients affected by slow-progression MND with 9 patients presenting typical progression illness. Sera were tested for VGKC-complex Abs by radioimmunoassay. The distribution of VGKC-complex Abs was analyzed with the Mann-Whitney U test. Results: The statistical analysis showed a significant difference between the mean values in the study and control groups. A case with long-survival MND harboring VGKC-complex Abs and treated with intravenous immunoglobulins is described. Conclusion: Although VGKC-complex Abs are not likely to be pathogenic, these results could reflect the coexistence of an immunological activation in patients with slow disease progression.

Objective: To clarify the most frequent modalities of use of plasma exchange (PE) in pediatric anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis and to establish the most effective association with other immunotherapies. Methods: Systematic literature review on PE in pediatric anti-NMDAR encephalitis (2007-2015). Results: Seventy-one articles were included (mostly retrospective), reporting a total of 242 subjects (73.2%, 93/127 females; median age at onset 12 years, range 1-18). Median time to immunotherapy was 21 days (range 0-190). In most cases, PE was given with steroids and IVIG (69.5%, 89/128), or steroids only (18%, 23/128); in a minority, it was associated with IVIG only (7%, 9/128), or was the only first-line treatment (5.5%, 7/128). In 54.5% (65/119), PE was the third treatment after steroids and IVIG, in 31.1% (37/119) the second after steroids or IVIG; only in 14.3% (17/119) was it the first treatment. Second-line immunotherapies were administered in 71.9% (100/139). Higher rates of full/substantial recovery at follow-up were observed with immunotherapy given

Background Patients with the syndrome of headache with neurological deficits and lymphocytosis (HaNDL) typically present with recurrent and temporary attacks of neurological symptoms and cerebrospinal fluid lymphocytosis. Aim and methods To identify potential HaNDL‐associated antibodies directed against neuronal surface and/or synapse antigens, sera of four HaNDL patients and controls were screened with indirect immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, cell-based assay, radioimmunoassay, protein macroarray and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results Although HaNDL sera did not yield antibodies to any of the well-characterized neuronal surface or synapse antigens, protein macroarray and ELISA studies showed high-titer antibodies to a subunit of the T-type voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC), CACNA1H, in sera of two HaNDL patients. Conclusion Our results support the notion that ion channel autoimmunity might at least partially contribute to HaNDL pathogenesis and occurrence of neurological symptoms.

Antibody-mediated encephalitis (anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis, anti-GABAb receptor encephalitis, etc.), are caused by antibodies directed against antigens located on the surface of neurons. They can occur with or without tumor association. Neuronal antibodies in serum and CSF can be diagnostic markers.

Few population studies are available on epidemiological indexes of hereditary ataxias. An investigation on the prevalence rate of these movement disorders is in progress for the Veneto region, the main area of northeast Italy with a population of 4,490,586 inhabitants. The first results of this epidemiological survey concern the province of Padua, which numbers 845,203 residents (January 1, 2002). The prevalence rate of inherited ataxias has been estimated at 93.3 cases per million inhabitants. The most common types appeared to be the autosomal dominant forms, namely spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 and 2, with a prevalence of 24 per 1,000,000. In the same population, with a prevalence rate of 6 per 1,000,000, Friedreich’s ataxia was defined as the prominent recessive autosomal form. There were very rare cases of ataxia telangiectasia, ataxia with vitamin E deficiency and cerebellar ataxia with congenital muscular dystrophy, a recently identified autosomal recessive disease.

identified follicle-like structures containing B cells close to vessels and PDGFRb+ cells forming a reticular network expanding to the parenchyma. To find out if these structures could provide sufficient homing locations which support plasma cells to become long-lived, we performed 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU)-pulse experiments. During pulse, EdU is incorporated by dividing cells like plasma blasts. The detection of EdU-positive cells up to seven weeks after pulse suggests that niches in the CNS can favor survival of plasma cells. We then further analyzed the migration of plasma blasts to the CNS. Since the sphingosine-1-phosphate analogon FTY720 (fingolimod) is known to suppress immune cell trafficking, we performed EAE experiments under accompanying treatment with the drug. FTY720treated animals were resistant to EAE in contrast to control animals. Immunofluorescent histological findings confirmed that no immune cell infiltration took place in FTY720-treated animals and the protective effect of FTY720 was not due to retention of immune cells in spleen, lymph nodes or bone marrow, as proved by quantitative FACS analysis. Control mice displayed massive immune cell infiltration in the perivascular space and parenchyma of the CNS, some evidently of long-lived phenotype. These results can be useful to evaluate the therapeutic potential of targeting plasma cells in chronic neuroinflammation.

Antibodies to voltage-gated potassium channels (VGKC-Abs) have been recognized in neuromyotonia, limbic encephalitis (LE), and Morvan syndrome (MoS),1,2 a rare condition with insomnia, peripheral, and central and autonomic nervous system involvement. Clinical progression in MoS is variable, but potentially fatal. We describe a patient with VGKC-Abs-positive MoS who showed prominent compulsive behaviors, basal ganglia hypermetabolism, increased catecholamine and serotonin secretion, epileptic seizures, and cardiac and endocrine circadian rhythm suppression. A striking response to immunotherapy paralleled a marked reduction in VGKC-Abs over 15 months. ### Case report. A 64-year-old man with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and polyarthrosis developed cramps, lower extremity pain, and sensory loss. Three years later, his sleep was disturbed by chewing, manual stereotypies, and sleep-talking. After an episode of tonic-clonic seizures, EEG revealed a temporal epileptic focus. He developed paroxysmal confusional episodes, with gesturing and irregular breathing, that were unresponsive to multiple anticonvulsants. He became irritable and hypomanic with overwhelming compulsive shopping and stealing. Urinary frequency, anosmia, impotence, and increased appetite appeared. Examination showed bilateral postural tremor, multifocal myoclonus, lower extremity fasciculations, hypoesthesia, hyporeflexia, and mild proximal muscle atrophy. Laboratory investigations, including autoimmune and thyroid profile, were normal except for increased leukocytes, a raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate and creatine phosphokinase, mild hyponatremia, and antinuclear antibodies 1:160. CSF was negative for infections and 14.3.3 protein, but showed slightly increased …

Encephalitis associated with anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor (NMDAR) antibodies is an autoimmune encephalopathy often associated with teratoma [1]. Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is an inflammatory demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) associated with antibodies against aquaporin 4 (AQP4) [2]. Here, we report the case of a patient who developed limbic encephalitis (LE) followed by NMO, whose serum harbored anti-NMDAR and anti-AQP4 IgG antibodies. A 50-year-old woman presented with subacute, shortterm memory loss, confusion, and behavioral changes. Routine blood tests, an infectious disease screening, an electroencephalogram (EEG) and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) tests were all negative, whereas a brain MRI showed a T2-weighted, hyperintense medial temporal cortex. A pelvic mass was detected by computed tomography (CT) scan. Two months later, she underwent a hystero-adnexectomy with the removal of an ovarian teratoma. A diagnosis of paraneoplastic LE was made. Tests for classical onconeural antibodies (Hu, Ri, Ma2, CV2/CMRP5, amphiphysin, Yo) proved negative. Her memory deficit started to improve 4 months after surgery, when she received repeated courses of low-dose oral steroids. One month later, she had only residual retrograde amnesia (Fig. 1e). Five months later, she developed drowsiness, cervical itching, and impaired gait. Within 2 weeks, she had developed paraplegia and MRI showed multiple T2weighted hyperintense lesions in the pons, hypothalamus, medulla oblongata, and cervical spine (Fig. 1a–c). A CSF analysis proved negative (normal white cell count and proteins, and absence of IgG intrathecal synthesis). Plasmaexchange and high-dose intravenous steroids were initiated, resulting in a slow improvement of strength. Nine months later, she presented with left-eye optic neuritis. High-dose intravenous steroids were partially effective. Three months later, a relapse occurred with weakness of the right limbs. An MRI disclosed new lesions in the pons and dorsal spine (Fig. 1d). Her serum and CSF were tested for AQP4-IgG-Ab by indirect immunofluorescence on a commercial assay (Euroimmun, Lubeck, Germany) [3], proving positive on serum (titer 1:100). The test was extended to NMDAR-IgG-Ab, also proving positive on serum (1:32) and on CSF. The patient was treated with plasma-exchange and oral steroids, with benefit. Three months later, her CSF analysis revealed a normal white cell count and increased protein content (84 mg/dl); matching oligoclonal bands were detected in the CSF and serum. Human leukocyte typing disclosed the presence of the class I allele B8 and class II DR3-DQ2 (DRB1*03-DQB1*02). AQP4-IgG-Aband NMDAR-IgG-Ab-positivity were both confirmed, but a decrease in serum Ab titer was shown (both Abs serum titer 1:10; NMDAR-Ab CSF titer 1:3, 2); VGCC-, AMPAR-, GABAbR-, LGI1and CASPR2-Abs tested negative. Treatment with azathioprine was started. Eight months later, her conditions were stable. This patient presented with LE followed by NMO 1 year later, and tested positive for AQP4and NMDAR-Abs. To M. Zoccarato M. F. Pelizza B. Giometto L. Zuliani (&) Department of Neurology, Ospedale Ca’Foncello, Azienda Unita Locale Socio-Sanitaria 9 Treviso, Piazza Ospedale 1, 31100 Treviso, Italy e-mail: luigizuliani77@gmail.com

No disease-specific neuronal antibodies have so far been defined in neuro-Behcet's disease (NBD). Immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry studies showed antibodies to hippocampal and cerebellar molecular layers and the surface antigens of cultured hippocampal neurons in sera and/or cerebrospinal fluids (CSF) of 13 of 20 NBD and 6 of 20 BD patients but not in multiple sclerosis or headache controls. Screening with a protein macroarray led to identification of stress-induced-phosphoprotein-1 (STIP-1) as an antigenic target. High-titer STIP-1-antibodies were detected in 6 NBD patients' sera but not in controls. These results suggest that neuronal antibodies could be useful as diagnostic biomarkers in NBD. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis (PLE) associated with small cell lung cancer (SCLC) often presents with antibodies to intracellular antigens and a poor outcome even after tumor resection and immunotherapy. We report a PLE patient presenting with generalized seizures, shortterm memory impairment and medial temporal lobe hyperintensity in MRI. Initial screening revealed significantly elevated thyroid antibody levels suggesting Hashimoto's encephalopathy. Following methylprednisolone treatment, her seizures ceased, MRI findings disappeared and memory impairment showed a partial resolution in 5 months. Two months later, she developed further generalized seizures. Chest X-ray showed a mass lesion, which was demonstrated by needle biopsy to be a small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). The panel of onconeural antibodies including cell-membrane antigens was negative. However, the patient's serum and cerebrospinal fluid IgG, obtained during both exacerbations, immunolabeled cytoplasm and dendrites of Purkinje cells, cerebellar and hippocampal molecular layers, basal ganglia, thalamus, and the surface of cultured hippocampal neurons, in a manner distinct from previously identified neuropil antibodies associated with SCLC. These neuropil antibodies appear to be associated with a favorable response to treatment. Further studies are required for determination of the target antigen.

Antibodies that immunoprecipitate (125)I-alpha-dendrotoxin-labelled voltage-gated potassium channels extracted from mammalian brain tissue have been identified in patients with neuromyotonia, Morvan's syndrome, limbic encephalitis and a few cases of adult-onset epilepsy. These conditions often improve following immunomodulatory therapies. However, the proportions of the different syndromes, the numbers with associated tumours and the relationships with potassium channel subunit antibody specificities have been unclear. We documented the clinical phenotype and tumour associations in 96 potassium channel antibody positive patients (titres >400 pM). Five had thymomas and one had an endometrial adenocarcinoma. To define the antibody specificities, we looked for binding of serum antibodies and their effects on potassium channel currents using human embryonic kidney cells expressing the potassium channel subunits. Surprisingly, only three of the patients had antibodies directed against the potassium channel subunits. By contrast, we found antibodies to three proteins that are complexed with (125)I-alpha-dendrotoxin-labelled potassium channels in brain extracts: (i) contactin-associated protein-2 that is localized at the juxtaparanodes in myelinated axons; (ii) leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 protein that is most strongly expressed in the hippocampus; and (iii) Tag-1/contactin-2 that associates with contactin-associated protein-2. Antibodies to Kv1 subunits were found in three sera, to contactin-associated protein-2 in 19 sera, to leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 protein in 55 sera and to contactin-2 in five sera, four of which were also positive for the other antibodies. The remaining 18 sera were negative for potassium channel subunits and associated proteins by the methods employed. Of the 19 patients with contactin-associated protein-antibody-2, 10 had neuromyotonia or Morvan's syndrome, compared with only 3 of the 55 leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 protein-antibody positive patients (P < 0.0001), who predominantly had limbic encephalitis. The responses to immunomodulatory therapies, defined by changes in modified Rankin scores, were good except in the patients with tumours, who all had contactin-associated-2 protein antibodies. This study confirms that the majority of patients with high potassium channel antibodies have limbic encephalitis without tumours. The identification of leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 protein and contactin-associated protein-2 as the major targets of potassium channel antibodies, and their associations with different clinical features, begins to explain the diversity of these syndromes; furthermore, detection of contactin-associated protein-2 antibodies should help identify the risk of an underlying tumour and a poor prognosis in future patients.

Limbic encephalitis is characterised by subacute development of short-term memory loss, seizures, confusion and psychiatric features.1 Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis is generally associated with small cell lung cancer (SCLC), and around 50% of patients harbour Hu, CV2/CRMP5 or amphiphysin antibodies.1 Recently, antibodies against voltage-gated potassium channels (VGKC-abs) were identified as a new marker of a non-paraneoplastic, immunotherapy-responsive form of limbic encephalitis.2,3 However, the presence of VGKC-ab does not exclude a paraneoplastic cause of limbic encephalitis.1 We described previously a new antibody called anti-glial nuclear antibody (AGNA), a marker of SCLC shown to be closely associated with paraneoplastic Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS).4 Here we report on two patients with paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis associated with SCLC and VGKC-ab who also presented AGNA. The presence of AGNA was assessed by immunohistochemistry on frozen sections of paraformaldehyde-fixed rat cerebellum in nine patients with limbic encephalitis and SCLC with (n = 2) or without (n = 7) VGKC-ab, and in seven patients with non-paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis and VGKC-ab. To confirm AGNA reactivity, an immunohistochemical competition assay was performed as described previously.4 VGKC-abs were detected by radioimmunoprecipitation (cutoff value: 100 pmol/l).2 A middle-aged man was admitted to hospital with a 2-week history of behavioural changes and generalised seizures. A neurological examination showed short-term memory loss, confusion and aphasia. Electroencephalography showed slowing in the left temporal lobe. Magnetic resonance …

We analyzed neuromyelitis optica (NMO) IgG in the serum or CSF samples from 46 patients with suspected NMO (28) and limited forms of NMO (18). One hundred and fifteen samples from multiple sclerosis (MS) patients were included as controls. The final clinical diagnosis after follow-up was 16 NMO, 12 MS, 11 transverse myelitis (TM) and seven recurrent optic neuritis (RON). NMO-IgG was detected in 62.5% of NMO, 50% of the recurrent longitudinally extensive TM, 14.3% of the RON but in none of the MS patients. The authors then compared the newly revised diagnostic criteria for NMO with the criteria published in 1999, in the 28 patients with suspected NMO. The revised criteria had higher specificity, and positive and negative predictive value (83.3% vs. 25%; 87.5% vs. 62.5; 83.3% vs. 75%), but slightly lower sensitivity (87.5% vs. 93.7%). Our study confirms NMO-IgG as a highly specific marker of NMO, and the usefulness of the revised diagnostic criteria in predicting a diagnosis of NMO.