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In outer space down to the altitudes routinely flown by larger aircrafts, radiation can pose serious issues for microelectronics circuits. The 88-Inch Cyclotron at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is a sector-focused cyclotron and home of the Berkeley Accelerator Space Effects Facility, where the effects of energetic particles on sensitive microelectronics are studied with the goal of designing electronic systems for the space community. This paper describes the flexibility of the facility and its capabilities for testing the bombardment of electronics by heavy ions, light ions, and neutrons. Experimental capabilities for the generation of neutron beams from deuteron breakups and radiation testing of carbon nanotube field effect transistor will be discussed.

The potential of particle therapy due to focused dose deposition in the Bragg peak has not yet been fully realized due to inaccuracies in range verification. The purpose of this work was to correlate the Bragg peak location with target structure, by overlaying the location of the Bragg peak onto a standard ultrasound image. Pulsed delivery of 50 MeV protons was accomplished by a fast chopper installed between the ion source and the cyclotron inflector. The chopper limited the train of bunches so that 2 Gy were delivered in [Formula: see text]. The ion pulse generated thermoacoustic pulses that were detected by a cardiac ultrasound array, which also produced a grayscale ultrasound image. A filtered backprojection algorithm focused the received signal to the Bragg peak location with perfect co-registration to the ultrasound images. Data was collected in a room temperature water bath and gelatin phantom with a cavity designed to mimic the intestine, in which gas pockets can displace the Bragg peak. Phantom experiments performed with the cavity both empty and filled with olive oil confirmed that displacement of the Bragg peak due to anatomical change could be detected. Thermoacoustic range measurements in the waterbath agreed with Monte Carlo simulation within 1.2 mm. In the phantom, thermoacoustic range estimates and first-order range estimates from CT images agreed to within 1.5 mm.

© 2018 American Physical Society. An experiment was performed at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's 88-in. Cyclotron to determine the mass number of a superheavy element. The measurement resulted in the observation of two α-decay chains, produced via the Am243(Ca48,xn)291-xMc reaction, that were separated by mass-to-charge ratio (A/q) and identified by the combined BGS+FIONA apparatus. One event occurred at A/q=284 and was assigned to Nh284 (Z=113), the α-decay daughter of Mc288 (Z=115), while the second occurred at A/q=288 and was assigned to Mc288. This experiment represents the first direct measurements of the mass numbers of superheavy elements, confirming previous (indirect) mass-number assignments.

Over the past two years noteworthy experimental and theoretical progress has been made towards the top-level scientific question for the US programme on heavy-ion-fusion-science and high energy density physics: ‘How can heavy-ion beams be compressed to the high intensity required to create high energy density matter and fusion conditions?’ New results in transverse and longitudinal beam compression, high-brightness transport and beam acceleration will be reported. Central to this campaign is final beam compression. With a neutralizing plasma, we demonstrated transverse beam compression by an areal factor of over 100 and longitudinal compression by a factor of >50. We also report on the first demonstration of simultaneous transverse and longitudinal beam compression in plasma. High beam brightness is key to high intensity on target, and detailed experimental and theoretical studies on the effect of secondary electrons on beam brightness degradation are reported. A new accelerator concept for nearterm low-cost target heating experiments was invented, and the predicted beam dynamics validated experimentally. We show how these scientific campaigns have created new opportunities for interesting target experiments in the warm dense matter regime. Finally, we summarize progress towards heavy-ion fusion, including the demonstration of a compact driver-size high-brightness ion injector. For all components of our high intensity campaign, the new results have been obtained via tightly coupled efforts in experiments, simulations and theory.

Electron-clouds and rising desorbed gas pressure limit the performance of many existing accelerators and, potentially, that of future accelerators including heavy-ion warm-dense matter and fusion drivers. For the latter, self-consistent simulation of the interaction of the heavy-ion beam(s) with the electron-cloud is necessary. To this end, we have merged the two codes WARP (HIF accelerator code) and POSINST (high-energy e-cloud build-up code), and added modules for neutral gas molecule generation, gas ionization, and electron tracking algorithms in magnetic fields with large time steps. The new tool is being benchmarked against the High-Current Experiment (HCX) and good agreement has been achieved. The simulations have also aided diagnostic interpretation and have identified unanticipated physical processes. We present the ''roadmap'' describing the different modules and their interconnections, along with detailed comparisons with HCX experimental results, as well as a preliminary application to the modeling of electron clouds in the Large Hadron Collider.

A Retarding Field Analyzer (RFA) was inserted in a drift region of the magnetic transport section of the High-Current Experiment (HCX), that is at high-vacuum, to measure ions and electrons resulting from beam interaction with background gas and walls. The ions are expelled during the beam pulse by the space–charge potential and the electrons are expelled mainly at the end of the beam, when the beam potential decays. The ion energy distribution shows the beam potential of ∼ 2100 V and the beam–background gas total cross-section of 3.1 × 10 - 19 m 2 . The electron energy distribution reveals that the expelled electrons are mainly desorbed from the walls and gain ∼ 22 eV from the beam potential decaying with time before entering the RFA. Details of the RFA design and of the measured energy distributions are presented and discussed.

During the past two years, significant experimental and theoretical progress has been made in the US heavy ion fusion science program in longitudinal beam compression, ion-beam-driven warm dense matter, beam acceleration, high brightness beam transport, and advanced theory and numerical simulations. Innovations in longitudinal compression of intense ion beams by >50X propagating through background plasma enable initial beam target experiments in warm dense matter to begin within the next two years. We are assessing how these new techniques might apply to heavy ion fusion drivers for inertial fusion energy.

Electrons can accumulate in and degrade the quality of positively charged beams. This is a well-known problem in proton storage rings. Heavy-ion rings are more frequently limited by gas pressure-rise effects. Both effects may limit how closely the beam radius can approach the beam-tube radius in a heavy-ion linac. We study beams of 1 MeV K + with currents of up to 180 mA in the High-Current Experiment (HCX), and compare our work with simulations. The theory and simulation results are discussed in a companion papers. We have developed the first diagnostics that quantitatively measure the accumulation of electrons in a beam [M. Kireeff Covo, A. Molvik, A. Friedman, J.-L. Vay, P. Seidl, G. Logan, D. Baca, J.L. Vujic, Phys. Rev. Lett. 97 (2006) 054801; M. Kireeff Covo, et al., Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A, 2007, in press, doi:10.1016/j.nima.2007.02.045.]. This will enable the particle balance to be measured for each source of electrons in a linac: ionization of gas, emission from walls surrounding the beam, and emission from an end wall coupled with electron drifts upstream through quadrupole magnets, and electron-trapping efficiencies can be determined. Experiments where the heavy-ion beam is transported with solenoid magnetic fields, rather than with quadrupole magnetic or electrostatic fields, are being initiated. We discuss plans for experiments using electrode sets (in the middle and at the ends of magnets) to either expel or to trap electrons within the magnets. We observe oscillations of the electron density and position in the last quadrupole magnet when we flood the beam with electrons from an end wall. These oscillations, near 6 MHz, are observed to grow from the center of the magnet while drifting upstream against the beam, in good agreement with simulations.

Key scientific results from recent experiments, modeling tools, and heavy ion accelerator research are summarized that explore ways to investigate the properties of high energy density matter in heavy-ion-driven targets, in particular, strongly-coupled plasmas at 0.01 to 0.1 times solid density for studies of warm dense matter, which is a frontier area in high energy density physics. Pursuit of these near-term objectives has resulted in many innovations that will ultimately benefit heavy ion inertial fusion energy. These include: neutralized ion beam compression and focusing, which hold the promise of greatly improving the stage between the accelerator and the target chamber in a fusion power plant; and the Pulse Line Ion Accelerator (PLIA), which may lead to compact, low-cost modular linac drivers.

We have measured electron and gas emission from 1 MeV K + impact on surfaces near grazing incidence on the High-Current Experiment (HCX) at LBNL. Electron emission coefficients reach values of 130, whereas gas desorption coefficients are near 10 4 . Mitigation techniques are being studied: a bead-blasted rough surface reduces electron emission by a factor of 10 and gas desorption by a factor of 2. Diagnostics are installed on HCX, between and within quadrupole magnets, to measure the beam halo loss, net charge and expelled ions, from which we infer gas density, electron trapping, and the effects of mitigation techniques. Here we discuss a new diagnostic technique that measures gas pressure and electron ionization rates within quadrupole magnets during the beam transit.

W.I-07 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE TRANSPORT LIMITS OF INTENSE HEAVY ION BEAMS IN THE HCX 1 L. R. Prost (FNAL), F. M. Bieniosek (LBNL), C.M. Celata (LBNL), A. Faltens (LBNL), P. A. Seidl (LBNL), W. L. Waldron (LBNL) R. Cohen (LLNL), A. Friedman (LLNL), M. Kireeff Covo (LLNL), S.M. Lund (LLNL), A.W. Molvik (LLNL) I. Haber (UM) FNAL: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, IL, 60510 USA LBNL: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720-8201 LLNL: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550 USA UM: University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-3511 Corresponding author: Lionel Prost FERMILAB P.O. Box 500 – MS 306 Batavia, IL, 60510 USA Tel: Fax: E-mail: lprost@fnal.gov Abstract The High Current Experiment (HCX) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is part of the US program to explore heavy-ion beam transport at a scale representative of the low-energy end of an induction linac driver for fusion energy production. The primary mission of this experiment is to investigate aperture fill factors acceptable for the transport of space-charge-dominated heavy-ion beams at high space-charge intensity (line charge density up to ~ 0.2 µC/m) over long pulse durations (4 µs) in alternating gradient focusing lattices of electrostatic or magnetic quadrupoles. The experiment also contributes to the practical baseline knowledge of intense beam manipulations necessary for the design, construction and operation of a heavy ion driver for inertial fusion. This experiment is testing transport issues resulting from nonlinear space-charge effects and collective modes, beam centroid alignment and beam steering, matching, image charges, halo, electron cloud effects, and longitudinal bunch control. We first present the results for a coasting 1 MeV K + ion beam transported through the first ten electrostatic transport quadrupoles, measured with optical beam-imaging and double-slit phase-space diagnostics. This includes studies at two different radial fill factors (60% and 80%), for which the beam transverse distribution was characterized in detail. Additionally, beam This work performed under the auspices of the U.S Department of Energy by University of California, Lawrence Livermore and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories under contracts No. W-7405-Eng-48 and DE-AC03-76SF00098.

The High-Current Experiment (HCX) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is part of the US program to explore heavy-ion beam transport at a scale representative of the low-energy end of an induction linac driver for fusion energy production. Four pulsed magnetic quadrupoles are being used to study gas and electron effects with a 0.2 A, 1-MeV K + beam. The magnets, originally designed and built for a prototype pulsed magnetic quadrupole array, have an elliptical beam tube (6×10 cm) and iron yoke. The magnet coil and field length are ≈31 cm, and operating gradients are 10–40 T/m. To establish that the field quality of the prototype quadrupoles is satisfactory for the experiments, a 1-cm pickup loop was used to measure the flux B r ( θ ) at the magnet mid-plane and also at the lead and return ends. A longer probe was used to measure the integrated flux of B θ ( θ ) along the magnet. The field quality appears satisfactory for the short transport experiments through these quadrupoles.

Significant experimental and theoretical progress has been made in the US heavy-ion fusion program on high-current sources, injectors, transport, final focusing, chambers and targets for high-energy density physics (HEDP) and inertial fusion energy (IFE) driven by induction linac accelerators. One focus of present research is the beam physics associated with quadrupole focusing of intense, space–charge dominated heavy-ion beams, including gas and electron cloud effects at high currents, and the study of long-distance-propagation effects such as emittance growth due to field errors in scaled experiments. A second area of emphasis in present research is the introduction of background plasma to neutralize the space charge of intense heavy-ion beams and assist in focusing the beams to a small spot size. In the near future, research will continue in the above areas, and a new area of emphasis will be to explore the physics of neutralized beam compression and focusing to high intensities required to heat targets to high-energy density conditions as well as for inertial fusion energy.

Significant experimental and theoretical progress has been made in the U.S. heavy ion fusion program on high-current sources, injectors, transport, final focusing, chambers and targets for high energy density physics (HEDP) and inertial fusion energy (IFE) driven by induction linac accelerators. One focus of present research is the beam physics associated with quadrupole focusing of intense, space-charge dominated heavy-ion beams, including gas and electron cloud effects at high currents, and the study of long-distance-propagation effects such as emittance growth due to field errors in scaled experiments. A second area of emphasis in present research is the introduction of background plasma to neutralize the space charge of intense heavy ion beams and assist in focusing the beams to a small spot size. In the near future, research will continue in the above areas, and a new area of emphasis will be to explore the physics of neutralized beam compression and focusing to high intensities required to heat targets to high energy density conditions as well as for inertial fusion energy.

Purpose: The potential of particle therapy has not yet been fully realized due to inaccuracies in range verification. The purpose of this work was to correlate the Bragg peak location with target structure, by overlaying thermoacoustic localization of the Bragg peak onto an ultrasound image. Methods: Pulsed delivery of 50 MeV protons was accomplished by a fast chopper installed between the ion source and the inflector of the 88″ cyclotron at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. 2 Gy were delivered in 2 µs by a beam with peak current of 2 µA. Thermoacoustic emissions were detected by a cardiac array and Verasonics V1 ultrasound system, which also generated a grayscale ultrasound image. 1024 thermoacoustic pulses were averaged before filtering and one-way beamforming focused signal onto the Bragg peak location with perfect co-registration to the ultrasound images. Data was collected in a room temperature water bath and gelatin phantom with a cavity designed to mimic the intestine, in which gas pockets can displace the Bragg peak. Experiments were performed with the cavity both empty and filled with olive oil. Results: In the waterbath overlays of the Bragg peak agreed with Monte Carlo simulations to within 800±170 µm. Agreement within 1.3 ± 0.2 mm was achieved in the gelatin phantom, although relative stopping powers were estimated only to first order from CT scans. Protoacoustic signals were detected after travel from the Bragg peak through 29 mm and 65 mm of phantom material when the cavity was empty and full of olive oil, respectively. Conclusion: Protoacoustic range verification is feasible with a commercial clinical ultrasound array, but at doses exceeding the clinical realm. Further optimization of both transducer array and injection line chopper is required to enable range verification within a 2 Gy dose limit, which would enable online adaptive treatment. This work was supported in part by a UWM Intramural Instrumentation Grant and by the Director, Office of Science, Office of Nuclear Physics, of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. YMQ was supported by a UWM-OUR summer fellowship.

Measurements were made of the density, species, and velocity of the desorbed gas cloud on intense ${\mathrm{K}}^{+}$ beam bombardment of a stainless steel target. Residual gas analyzer measurements indicate that the gas cloud consists of predominantly ${\mathrm{H}}_{2}$. Energy analyzer measurements of doubly ionized beam ions show that the ratio of hydrogen gas production to beam density was approximately $3000\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{\text{molecules}}/\mathrm{\text{ion}}$ at normal incidence. Optical measurements of the evolution of the gas cloud during the beam pulse show a distribution with an average expansion velocity of about $0.5\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{mm}/\ensuremath{\mu}\mathrm{s}$. Comparison is made with a simple model of the gas cloud behavior.

We present recent advances in the modeling of beam- electron-cloud dynamics, including surface effects such as secondary electron emission, gas desorption, etc, and volumetric effects such as ionization of residual gas and charge-exchange reactions. Simulations for the HCX facility with the code WARP/POSINST will be described and their validity demonstrated by benchmarks against measurements. The code models a wide range of physical processes and uses a number of novel techniques, including a large-timestep electron mover that smoothly interpolates between direct orbit calculation and guiding-center drift equations, and a new computational technique, based on a Lorentz transformation to a moving frame, that allows the cost of a fully 3D simulation to be reduced to that of a quasi-static approximation.

This study group was initiated to consider whether there were any ''show-stopper'' issues with accelerators for heavy-ion warm-dense matter (WDM) and heavy-ion inertial fusion energy (HIF), and to prioritize them. Showstopper issues would appear as limits to beam current; that is, the beam would be well-behaved below the current limit, and significantly degraded in current or emittance if the current limit were exceeded at some region of an accelerator. We identified 14 issues: 1-6 could be addressed in the near term, 7-10 are potentially attractive solutions to performance and cost issues but are not yet fully characterized, 11-12 involve multibeam effects that cannot be more than partially studied in near-term facilities, and 13-14 involve new issues that are present in some novel driver concepts. Comparing the issues with the new experimental, simulation, and theoretical tools that we have developed, it is apparent that our new capabilities provide an opportunity to re-examine and significantly increase our understanding of the number one issue--halo growth and mitigation.

During heavy-ion operation in several particle accelerators worldwide, dynamic pressure rises of orders of magnitude were triggered by lost beam ions that bombarded the vacuum chamber walls. This ion-induced molecular desorption, observed at CERN, GSI, and BNL, can seriously limit the ion beam lifetime and intensity of the accelerator. From dedicated test stand experiments we have discovered that heavy-ion-induced gas desorption scales with the electronic energy loss (dE{sub e}/dx) of the ions slowing down in matter; but it varies only little with the ion impact angle, unlike electronic sputtering.

Intense ion beams are difficult to maintain as non-neutral plasmas. Experiments and simulations are used to study the complex interactions between beam ions and (unwanted) electrons. Such ''electron clouds'' limit the performance of many accelerators. To characterize electron clouds, a number of parameters are measured including: total and local electron production and loss for each of three major sources, beam potential versus time, electron line-charge density, and gas pressure within the beam. Electron control methods include surface treatments to reduce electron and gas emission, and techniques to remove electrons from the beam, or block their capture by the beam. Detailed, self-consistent simulations include beam-transport fields, and electron and gas generation and transport; these compute unexpectedly rich behavior, much of which is confirmed experimentally. For example, in a quadrupole magnetic field, ion and dense electron plasmas interact to produce multi-kV oscillations in the electron plasma and distortions of the beam velocity space distribution, without the system becoming homogeneous or locally neutral.

The cost of accelerators for heavy-ion inertial fusion energy (HIF) can be reduced by using the smallest possible clearance between the beam and the wall from the beamline. This increases beam loss to the walls, generating ion-induced electrons that could be trapped by beam space charge potential into an "electron cloud", which can cause degradation or loss of the ion beam. In order to test the physical mechanism model of ion induced electrons production we have measured the impact of K+ ions with energies up to 400 KeV on stainless steel surfaces near grazing incidence, using the ion source test stand (STS-500) at LLNL. The electron yield will be discussed and compared with experimental measurements from 1 MeV K+ ions in the High-Current Experiment at LBNL.

A set of experiments has been performed on the High-Current Experiment (HCX) facility at LBNL, in which the ion beam is allowed to collide with an end plate and thereby induce a copious supply of desorbed electrons. Through the use of combinations of biased and grounded electrodes positioned in between and downstream of the quadrupole magnets, the flow of electrons upstream into the magnets can be turned on or off. Properties of the resultant ion beam are measured under each condition. The experiment is modeled via a full three-dimensional, two species (electron and ion) particle simulation, as well as via reduced simulations (ions with appropriately chosen model electron cloud distributions, and a high-resolution simulation of the region adjacent to the end plate). The three-dimensional simulations are the first of their kind and the first to make use of a timestep-acceleration scheme that allows the electrons to be advanced with a timestep that is not small compared to the highest electron cyclotron period. The simulations reproduce qualitative aspects of the experiments, illustrate some unanticipated physical effects, and serve as an important demonstration of a developing simulation capability.

Contaminating clouds of electrons are a concern for most accelerators of positively charged particles, but there are some unique aspects of heavy-ion accelerators for fusion and high-energy density physics which make modeling such clouds especially challenging. In particular, self-consistent electron and ion simulation is required, including a particle advance scheme which can follow electrons in regions where electrons are strongly magnetized, weakly magnetized, and unmagnetized. The approach to such self-consistency is described, and in particular a scheme for interpolating between full-orbit (Boris) and drift-kinetic particle pushes that enables electron time steps long compared to the typical gyroperiod in the magnets. Tests and applications are presented: simulation of electron clouds produced by three different kinds of sources indicates the sensitivity of the cloud shape to the nature of the source; first-of-a-kind self-consistent simulation of electron-cloud experiments on the high-current experim...