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Background The prospect of eliminating onchocerciasis from Africa by mass treatment with ivermectin has been rejuvenated following recent successes in foci in Mali, Nigeria and Senegal. Elimination prospects depend strongly on local transmission conditions and therefore on pre-control infection levels. Pre-control infection levels in Africa have been mapped largely by means of nodule palpation of adult males, a relatively crude method for detecting infection. We investigated how informative pre-control nodule prevalence data are for estimating the pre-control prevalence of microfilariae (mf) in the skin and discuss implications for assessing elimination prospects. Methods and Findings We analyzed published data on pre-control nodule prevalence in males aged ≥20 years and mf prevalence in the population aged ≥5 years from 148 African villages. A meta-analysis was performed by means of Bayesian hierarchical multivariate logistic regression, accounting for measurement error in mf and nodule prevalence, bioclimatic zones, and other geographical variation. There was a strong positive correlation between nodule prevalence in adult males and mf prevalence in the general population. In the forest-savanna mosaic area, the pattern in nodule and mf prevalence differed significantly from that in the savanna or forest areas. Significance We provide a tool to convert pre-control nodule prevalence in adult males to mf prevalence in the general population, allowing historical data to be interpreted in terms of elimination prospects and disease burden of onchocerciasis. Furthermore, we identified significant geographical variation in mf prevalence and nodule prevalence patterns warranting further investigation of geographical differences in transmission patterns of onchocerciasis., Author Summary Until recently, elimination of onchocerciasis (river blindness) from Africa by mass treatment with ivermectin alone was deemed impossible. However, recent reports of elimination of onchocerciasis from various African foci have stimulated renewed interest. An important determinant of achieving elimination is the pre-control microfilarial (mf) prevalence, i.e. the percentage of people with larval stages of the Onchocerca volvulus worm in the skin, which can be detected in a skin snip (a small skin biopsy). Because this method is considered invasive, pre-control infection levels in Africa have been mapped mostly by means of palpation of subcutaneous nodules (protuberances under the skin where the adult worms live) in adult males, a relatively crude but non-invasive method of detecting infection. We developed a tool to derive estimates of pre-control mf prevalence from available pre-control nodule prevalence estimates. This tool can help evaluate ongoing control programs, help assess local elimination prospects, and help estimate levels of disease due to onchocerciasis by linking pre-control nodule palpation data to the large body of literature on the association between mf prevalence and disease.

Filariases are caused by onchocercid nematodes that are transmitted by arthropod vectors. More than 180 million people are infected worldwide. Mass drug administration has been set up in many endemic areas to control the parasite burden. Although very successful in limiting microfilarial load, transmission has not been completely interrupted in such areas. A proportion of infected patients with lymphatic filariasis or loiasis are known to be amicrofilaremic, as they do not present microfilariae in their bloodstream despite the presence of adult worms. A mirror status also exists in CBA/Ca mice infected with Litomosoides sigmodontis, the well-established model of filariasis. Using this model, the goal of this study was to determine if the kinetics of blood clearance of microfilariae differed between amicrofilaremic CBA/Ca mice and microfilaremic BALB/c mice. For this purpose, a qPCR approach was devised to detect microfilariae in different tissues, after a controlled inoculation of microfilariae. We showed that the rapid clearance of microfilariae from the pleural cavity or from the bloodstream of CBA/Ca mice was associated with a massive accumulation of first stage larvae in the lungs, liver and spleen.

A longitudinal entomological survey of the vectors of loiasis was conducted in the Missama area (Lekoumou region) in the Congo from September 1987 to August 1989. The principal catching site was a palm grove surrounded by forest 3 km from the village. Landing/biting densities of Chrysops were measured by standardized fly catches lasting 11 hr carried out twice a month. Vector landing densities were also assessed in the Bantu and Pygmy villages and in the fields. Populations of Chrysops from the palm grove were examined 6 times a month for infection with the infective stage of Loa loa. Chrysops silacea was the predominate vector except at the beginning of the rainy season, when C. dimidiata was the prevailing species. Chrysops were caught throughout rainy season, from October to June. The host-seeking activity of C. silacea was greatest in the middle of this season (February), but occurred sooner (October) for C. dimidiata. The following variables associated with transmission were calculated from our observations in the palm grove (the first figure corresponds to the first year of the study and the figure in parentheses corresponds to the second year). It was calculated that 2.658 (2.185) C. silacea and 1.412 (1.182) C. dimidiata could bite a person in the palm grove per year, including an average of 14.4 (12.7) infective C. silacea and 9.8 (7.2) infective C. dimidiata. The percentage of all dissected flies with third stage larvae in the head and the mean number of larvae in the head/infective fly were 0.57% and 10.1 ± 6.8 for C. silacea and 0.66% and 11.2 ± 6.5 for C. dimidiata, respectively. The estimated annual transmission potentials were 171.1 (102.9) for C. silacea and 116.1 (73.8) for C. dimidiata. In the palm grove, transmission was ensured by 2 effective vectors during the rainy season (October to May). Although the annual biting rate for both species was twice as low in the village as in the forest, our data suggest that effective transmission occurs there also.

1934 Bantus and 379 Pygmies were investigated for Loa loa and Mansonella perstans filariasis in 7 villages in the Chaillu forest of the Congo. Bantus were more frequently infected with L. loa than Pygmies (18·9% of microfilariae carriers compared with 10·6%). In individuals over 30 years of age, males were more frequently infected than females. Microfilarial densities increased until the age of 20 years and then remained stable. Parasite load was not significantly different in the two ethnic groups. For mansonelliasis, the microfilarial rate was higher in the Pygmies (67·5% compared with 22·0%) and males of the 2 groups were more frequently infected than females. Microfilarial load was also higher in Pygmies than in Bantus (mean microfilarial densities (MfD 50) 13 and 2 respectively). In the Pygmy group, MfD 50 for M. perstans increased with age whereas it remained stable in the Bantus. 53·8% of the 249 questioned persons had experienced worm migration under the conjunctiva. Both ethnic groups were equally exposed to the vectors of L. loa and reasons for the difference in prevalence of microfilaria carriers are discussed. For mansonelliasis increased contact with vectors may explain the higher degree of infestation observed in Pygmies. Other filariases were infrequent in ( Mansonella streptocerca ), or absent from ( Onchocerca volvulus and Wuchereria bancrofti ), the study area.

Effects of ivermectin and moxidectin were compared on two filarial species : #Monanema martini$ which presents dermal microfilariae and induces #Onchocerca$-like lesions in its natural murid host #Lemniscomys striatus$, and #Litomosoides sigmodontis$ (=#L. carinii$). #M. martini$ microfilariae showed an unusual resistance to ivermectin, in vitro and in vivo ; moxidectin was no more efficient. However, the two drugs used at high concentrations deeply altered the uterine embryogenesis, but had no lethal effect on adult filariae. #L. sigmodontis$ blood microfilariae showed a great susceptibility to moxidectin, similar to that previously described for ivermectin. The two drugs also induced a long term effect because they inhibited the insemination of the female filariae. This result reinforces the observations made by other authors on the human parasite, #Onchocerca volvulus$. (Résumé d'auteur)