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The results of previously performed studies are summarized, and a methodology for estimating the lifetime consumption of fire tankers is presented. The proposed methodology takes into account the specific features of the practical operation of a fire truck, as well as its integral part — the tank, which has a significant impact on the loss of the lifetime of the vehicle as a whole. The methodology combines computational and statistical methods, and also develops an approach based on taking into account two interdependent factors: mileage and operating time. In combination, this makes it possible to differentially determine the lifetime consumption of fire tankers, taking into account the weighted average consumption of the lifetime potential of their main components. At the same time, to the known five typical groups of the main parts of the vehicle, which have a similar nature of lifetime loss depending on mileage (conditions, nature of loading and damage processes) and operating time, in the case of a tanker truck, it is proposed to add another characteristic group, tanks, using a dependence for assessing its lifetime, taking into account the lifetime consumption for corrosion wear. An example of calculating the lifetime consumption of a fire tanker is given. The results obtained show values corresponding to the actual processes of obsolescence. Scope of application of the results obtained is: assessment of the condition of a fire truck and its tank after long-term storage; extension of the operation of a fire tanker after the expiration of the established service life; extension of the service life after major repairs; extension of the service life after the main lifetime work out; decision on the expediency of repair or decommissioning of a tanker truck.

Vehicle integrated photovoltaics (VIPV) are among the identified solutions to reduce the environmental impacts of the transport sector. The model developed here simulates the VIPV system. It considers various usage patterns and vehicle types, several characteristics of the photovoltaic system and all the losses that may decrease energy yield. Focusing on a passenger car, simulations indicate the order of influence of the parameters on the outputs of the model: geographic locality, shading, thresholds due to extra-consumption needed to charge the vehicle's battery from the photovoltaic (PV) system and occurrence of recharge with the grid. With technology projections for 2030, with 30% shading, VIPV will cover a distance of up to 1444 km per year. This represents up to 12% of the driven mileage. For the best month, it can reach up to 14 km/day. For average Europe and realistic conditions, VIPV cover 648 km per year. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of a solarized passenger car shows a negative balance for a low-carbon electricity mix and average solar irradiance. In favorable conditions, the carbon footprint is up to 489 kg of CO2-equivalent avoided emissions on a 13-year lifespan. Beyond the focus on km and LCA, VIPV may provide useful functions in non-interconnected zones and for resilience in disaster areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been established that the average values of the error in measuring the flow rate of the test liquid (TL) by electromagnetic injectors (EMI) are associated with the vehicle mileage. The greater the mileage, the higher the value of the error. It is shown that the dependence of the error in measuring the flow rate on the run can be described in a rough approximation by regression. The technical condition of the EMI was assessed by an instrument for cleaning and analyzing fuel injectors HP-6V, complete with an Ultrasonic Cleaner ultrasonic bath. The objects of study are the EMI of gasoline engines with distributed fuel injection. The injectors were used in the power units of GAZ-27040 V (“Gazelle”), ZAZ Chance SX, VAZ 2121 (“Niva”), Chevrolet Lacetti and others, mileage from 0 to 188 thousand km. Siemens DEKA ZMZ 6354, Siemens DEKA VAZ 6238, Siemens DEKA VAZ 20734, Siemens DEKA VAZ 20735, Bosch 0 280 158 502, Bosch 0 280 158 017, Bosch 0 280 158 022, Bosch 0 280 150 9925, Denso 23925 injectors tested.

Battery is the core equipment of the electrical vehicle (EV), battery life, and performance are critical to EV. Only motor variables are considered in most model predictive control (MPC) strategy in which battery indexes are neglected. A model predictive speed control (MPSC) strategy with adjustable C-rate of battery is proposed in this paper on EV with permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM). The rest capacity of battery is involved in the cost function, and the operating speed is related to the rest capacity of battery which adjusts the C-rate of the discharging currents further to protect battery. As the EV runs, the C-rate is decreased step by step according to the improved cost function, and the energy is saved to prolong mileage. The benefits of the proposed method including discharging capacities and operating mileage are corroborated by the simulation and repetitive experimental results under same conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Vehicle integrated photovoltaics (VIPV) are among the identified solutions to reduce the environmental impacts of the transport sector. The model developed here simulates the VIPV system. It considers various usage patterns and vehicle types, several characteristics of the photovoltaic system and all the losses that may decrease energy yield. Focusing on a passenger car, simulations indicate the order of influence of the parameters on the outputs of the model: geographic locality, shading, thresholds due to extra-consumption needed to charge the vehicle’s battery from the photovoltaic (PV) system and occurrence of recharge with the grid. With technology projections for 2030, with 30% shading, VIPV will cover a distance of up to 1444 km per year. This represents up to 12% of the driven mileage. For the best month, it can reach up to 14 km/day. For average Europe and realistic conditions, VIPV cover 648 km per year. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of a solarized passenger car shows a negative balance for a low-carbon electricity mix and average solar irradiance. In favorable conditions, the carbon footprint is up to 489 kg of CO2-equivalent avoided emissions on a 13-year lifespan. Beyond the focus on km and LCA, VIPV may provide useful functions in non-interconnected zones and for resilience in disaster areas.

This paper proposes a mileage efficiency metric to enable direct comparison of energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emission of cars for various vehicle mass, fuel type, vehicle make, vehicle technology, road infrastructure, and drive schedule. This metric allows a unifying measure of vehicle mileage and fuel consumption regardless of the above factors. The proposed mileage efficiency metric is based on the concept of an ideal car (IC), which is defined as the one without internal or external losses; or an ideal powertrain car, which is defined as the one without internal losses. Mileage efficiency is defined as the ratio of a real-world car (RWC) fuel economy (in miles per gasoline gallon equivalent or mpgge) to that of an ideal car. As such, mileage efficiency is able to attribute efficiency loss of a RWC to internal and/or external losses. It is shown that mileage efficiency depends on car design and shows how good or bad RWCs are relative to ICs. The paper also highlights the importance of good road infrastructures in reducing transportation fuel consumption independent of fuel efficiencies of cars. This work provides a fundamental framework to set government policies and incentives for vehicle technology, alternative fuel choice, and infrastructure investments.

Injury rates among runners are high, with the knee injured most frequently. The interaction of running experience and running mechanics is not well understood but may be important for understanding relative injury risk in low vs higher mileage runners. The study aim was to apply a principal component analysis (PCA) to test the hypothesis that differences exist in kinematic waveforms and coordination between higher and low mileage groups. Gait data were collected for 50 subjects running at 3.5 m/s assigned to either a low (< 15 miles/wk) or higher (> 20 miles/wk, 1 year experience) mileage group. A PCA was performed on a matrix of trial vectors of all force, joint kinematic, and center of pressure data. The projection of the subjects’ trial vectors onto the linear combination of PC7, PC10, PC13, and PC19 was significantly different between the higher and lower mileage groups (d = 0.63, P = .012). This resultant PC represented variation in transverse plane pelvic rotation, hip internal rotation, and hip and knee abduction and adduction angles. These results suggest the coordination of lower extremity segment kinematics is different for lower and higher mileage runners. The [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, we proposed the hypothesis that weekly running volume and preferred running pace may play a role in preserving ankle joint kinetics in middle‐age runners as ankle joint kinetics were generally similar in young and middle‐aged runners with similar running volume and preferred pace. To further address this hypothesis, we compared lower extremity joint kinetics between high and low training volume runners in both young and middle‐aged groups. Joint kinetics calculated from 3D kinematic and ground reaction force data during over‐ground running at 2.7 m·s−1 from young and middle‐aged runners who ran low or high weekly volume were analyzed. A two‐factor analysis of variance was used to compare joint kinetics between age and running volume groups. Positive hip work was greater in middle‐aged compared to young runners (P =.005). Plantarflexor torque (P =.009) and positive ankle work (P =.042) were greater in young compared to middle‐aged runners. Positive ankle work was also greater in the high compared to the low volume group (P =.021). Finally, age by volume interactions were found for knee extensor torque (P =.024), negative knee work (P =.018), and positive knee work (P =.019) but not for ankle and hip joint kinetics. These findings suggest less distal‐to‐proximal difference in positive joint work with high running volume in both young and middle‐aged runners as a result of greater power generation at the ankle. Given the age main effects, our findings are also the first to suggest the age‐related distal‐to‐proximal shift in joint kinetics appears in middle‐aged runners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Blockchain technology has the potential to bring transparency and trust to a multitude of use cases. Our research demonstrates that the technology can reduce asymmetric information in markets by bridging trust gaps. The combination of blockchain and Internet of Things technology that automatically collects sensor data, provides a feasible, decentralized technological solution for such an inefficient "Market of Lemons" coined by nobel laureate Georg Akerlof. In this paper, we develop a system prototype to reduce mileage fraud on the used car markets. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of a trusted system of records for (vehicle) data such as mileage data using a distributed database based on the public Ethereum network and smart contracts. We have identified eight requirements that are fulfilled by the prototype and the functional logic and design of thesolution can be reproduced to any other application area characterized by a lack of trust between actors or by the absence of a trusted central authority. However, the developed prototype suffers from similar limitations and challenges as the technology itself. Low throughput causes limitations in scalability and transaction costs are unpredictable. Further development of the blockchain technology and considering more cost‐efficient consensus mechanisms will address these issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of earlier studies are summarized and an evaluation method of the lifetime of metal tanks of fire trucks with regard to mileage and corrosion processes is presented. The above mentioned method combines calculated and statistical approaches and makes it possible to differentially determine the lifetime for fire truck tanks of various metallic materials. Examples of calculating the lifetime of tanks for widespread models of fire trucks are given.

The goal of this article is the fault analysis of combustion engines on the basis of the assessment of dependent variables: initial mileage, annual mileage and the annual number of orders made in the service and repair system compared with the independent factor, i.e. bus make. In the research four vehicle makes were tested: Jelcz M121, Mercedes-Benz Citaro, Solaris Urbino 12 and Autosan Sancity 12LF. The research encompassed the number of faults of a vehicle and its systems, the initial and annual mileage. It was conducted on the basis of 2015 data broken into particular months.

Conventional wind power smoothing control adopts hard-coded filtering algorithms to produce smoothed power output without considering the actual system need. In this letter, we propose a novel smoothing control paradigm in context of performance-based regulation service, in which the actual balancing need is considered and formulated as an automatic generation control regulation mileage. The proposed smoothing objective is to alleviate the regulation mileage while maximize wind energy harvesting. The effectiveness of the proposed framework is demonstrated through comparable case studies, through which the simulation results suggest a high potential for practical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aims at examining the effect of aggressive driver behaviour, violation and error on motor vehicle crashes and investigating the factor structure of the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) factors on the crash involvement in Jordan. This is a cross-sectional study design conducted during September, 2016 to May 2017 in Amman, the capital of Jordan. The study included a representative sample of aged 22-65 years old 1450 drivers of which 1084 drivers agreed to participate (74.7%). The Manchester DBQ instrument was used to measure the aggressive, aberrant driving behaviours leading to crashes. Univariate and Multivariate logistic regression statistical analysis were performed. Out of a total 1084 responding drivers, 778 (71.7%) were males and 306 (28.3%) were females. The study revealed a statistically significant difference between males and females drivers in terms of age (p < 0.001), education (p < 0.001), occupation (p = 046), marital status (p < 0.001), income (p < 0.001), driving experience (p < 0.001) and seat belts use (p < 0.001). Most of drivers admitted to ever had crashes (p < 0.001), careless driving (p < 0.001), having excessive speed (p < 0.001), smoking while driving (p < 0.001), crossing red traffic light (p < 0.001), using mobile phone (p < 0.001) and using SMS while driving (p = 0.041). The DBQ mean scores of males were significantly higher in violations, error and frequently reported lapses whereas the mean driving skills score was similar between male and female divers. The factor included nine items of violations, six items of errors and five items of lapses in the Jordanian driver sample. Further, multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed violations, mobile phone use, excessive speed, driving skills, errors, lapses and type and size of vehicle significantly increased the risk of crash involvement. The results of the study demonstrated the increased risk of road traffic crashes among young Jordanian driverswhich had history of injuries at the time of crash (37.8%). Excessive speeding and mobile phone were the strongest predictors for the crash occurrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Cumulative mileage affects motorcycle exhaust emissions. • Aerosol related TEFs and MEQ assessment are conducted in this study. • The lowest pollutants emission factors could be found during the lowest mileage. • PM 2.5 and total p-PAHs expressed the moderate to high correlation with NOx. • Higher impact of health risk was found at higher cumulative mileages motorcycles. Abstract This research investigates the mileage and the health risk assessment of aerosol carcinogenicity and mutagenicity emitted by ten in-use motorcycles. The total p-PAHs emission factor of ten in-use motorcycles are 676.3 μg km−1 with average of 67.6 ± 13.6 μg km−1. Naphthalene (Nap) shows the largest emission factors, followed by phenanthrene (PA) and fluoranthen (FL). The mileage present high correlation coefficient (Rsp = 0.681) with CO. CO is associated with cumulative mileage leading to bad combustion efficiency, which caused low to high relationship for total p-PAHs (Rsp = 0.388), PM 2.5 (Rsp = 0.680) and NOx (Rsp = 0.799). Both PM 2.5 and total p-PAHs are generally generated via incomplete combustion and the results expressed the moderate to high correlation (Rsp = 0.578, 0.898) with NOx. Taking into consideration of high-mileage motorcycles (30,001–50,000 km), the toxic equivalent of carcinogenicity and mutagenicity exhaust are about 4.67, 1.99 and 3.89, 2.0 times higher than low (10,001–20,000 km) and middle (20,001–30,000 km) cumulative mileages, respectively. Therefore, in the conclusion of our study in compared with that of other research directed the fact that lower carcinogenicity and mutagenicity emission factor were found at lower cumulative mileages motorcycles however, the impact increases with the high cumulative mileage motorcycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most automobile insurance databases contain a large number of policyholders with zero claims. This high frequency of zeros may reflect the fact that some insureds make little use of their vehicle, or that they do not wish to make a claim for small accidents in order to avoid an increase in their premium, but it might also be because of good driving. We analyze information on exposure to risk and driving habits using telematics data from a pay‐as‐you‐drive sample of insureds. We include distance traveled per year as part of an offset in a zero‐inflated Poisson model to predict the excess of zeros. We show the existence of a learning effect for large values of distance traveled, so that longer driving should result in higher premiums, but there should be a discount for drivers who accumulate longer distances over time due to the increased proportion of zero claims. We confirm that speed limit violations and driving in urban areas increase the expected number of accident claims. We discuss how telematics information can be used to design better insurance and to improve traffic safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicle (EV) aggregators participating in frequency regulation services with a large number of EVs may have a delayed response problem due to their underlying communication infrastructure and scheduling. In this paper, we investigate the effect of delays in EV aggregators’ domain on their frequency regulation payments, especially mileage payment. Since the delays affect frequency regulation performance, in order to consider the delay effect on regulation performance, we enhance the conventional load frequency control model by including multiple EV aggregators with varying delays. Under this model, we evaluate the effect of delays in EV aggregators’ domain on their profits under two ISOs’ mileage payments such as PJM and NYISO. Through simulations, it is shown that the profit of EV aggregators increases as the delays increases. The conventional mileage payments did not motivate EV aggregators to reduce the delay in order to improve regulation performance. To solve the problem, we propose a new mileage payment to reduce the delay. We finally show that the proposed payment can provide an incentive to reduce the delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Running speed is slower in middle-age compared with younger runners due to reduced ankle but not hip and knee kinetic output. Running-specific training helps attenuate age-related declines in measures of endurance, muscle strength, and gait speed. Considering the adaptability of the human body in response to imposed stresses, maintaining training volume and intensity may play a role in modifying running biomechanics in middle-age runners. Purpose: To compare running biomechanics between young and middle-age runners when controlling for the confounding effects of training volume and intensity. Methods: Fifteen middle-age runners, 15 young runners with similar training volume as the middle-age group and, 15 young runners with similar preferred training paces (i.e., intensity) as the middle-age runners participated in the study. Lower-limb joint kinetics were calculated from kinematic and ground reaction force data during overground running at a submaximal speed and compared among groups. Results: Middle-age runners ran with similar peak ankle power compared with volume-matched younger runners although peak plantarflexor moment was 10.5% lower in the middle age group (P = 0.046; Cohen d = 0.78). Middle-age runners ran with similar ankle plantarflexor moment and joint power compared with training pace-matched young runners. As expected, no age-related differences were observed in hip and knee kinetics when training volume or pace were matched between age groups. These results suggest that training pace may be more effective in attenuating age-related declines in plantarflexor kinetics in middle-age runners. Conclusions: From these findings, we propose the hypothesis that both training volume and training pace may play a role in maintaining plantarflexor kinetics but that training pace may have a greater impact on ankle plantarflexor kinetics in middle-age runners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having replaced the diesel locomotives operated in Lithuanian railways by new ones, part of old diesel locomotives (21 units) were renovated. They were equipped with new diesel engines made in Kolomna (Russia). These diesel locomotives are used as reserve locomotives or for carrying small scope freight on local routes. After a few years from their renovation diesel engines as well as the locomotives started to fail. Failures happened to be repeated. The article analyses these locomotives’ failure patterns such as number distribution of engine failures according to locomotive mileage, distribution of engine failures according to diesel locomotive turnover, distribution of engine failure number according to consumed fuel. It suggested to regard the density of engine failure probability according to consumed fuel as one of the indicators of engine reliability.

Motorcycles were selected to determine their fuel consumption and exhaust emissions following ECE driving cycles. Exhaust constituents including CO 2 , CO, NOx, total hydrocarbons (THC) and hydrocarbon species (27 paraffins, 9 olefins, 16 aromatics and 15 carbonyls) were investigated for this work. The age of 10– 90% of the selected motorcycles ranged from 2.5 to 12.4 years, and their mileage ranged from 5400 to 39,300 km. CO emission ranged from 1.4 to 6.4 g/km (median value: 2.98 g/km), THC from 0.41 to 1.54 g/km (median value: 0.98 g/km), NOx from 0.16 to 0.28 g/km (median value: 0.21 g/km), CO 2 from 58.9 to 62.2 g/km (median value: 60.5 g/km) and fuel consumption from 30.7 to 36.4 km/L (median value: 33.4 km/L), corresponding to the percentage cumulative data from 10 to 90% of the selected motorcycles. Results indicated that the motorcycle exhaust emission and fuel consumption depended on their mileage and ages. An increase in mileage of 1000 km resulted in an increase of 103 mg for CO emission and 14.7 mg for hydrocarbon emission and a reduction of 1.52 mg NOx emission and 0.11 km per liter fuel consumption. For various VOC groups, a mileage increase of 1000 km corresponding to the increased exhaust emission of paraffins was 6.71 mg, olefins 1.90 mg, aromatics 7.04 mg, carbonyls 0.283 mg and 67 VOC species 15.9 mg. Fuel consumption and emissions of CO and hydrocarbon increased in motorcycles over the guaranteed mileage of 15,000 km. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Designing a new cooperative braking strategy of regenerative and mechanical braking systems for electric vehicles. • Using electronic braking force distribution (EBD) compensation capacity to have a safe and efficient braking. • Derivation of regenerative braking torque in an analytical form using constrained nonlinear prediction method. • The developed strategy is designed based on standard braking amendments (ECE R13). • Performance comparison of the designed system with the previous ones. A new generation of electric vehicles with in-wheel motor technology has been introduced and developed. Increasing system efficiency, eliminating mechanical intermediaries, and achieving regenerative braking torque with better performance are the motivations to seek to improve this technology. To the best knowledge of authors, no solution has been introduced to enhance such system efficiency while all constraints and limitations, especially the battery health and safety issues have been considered. In order to properly manage the energy and use the maximum possible braking capacity of the motor's regenerative mode, accurate instantaneous information of the maximum possible braking torque capacity is required. In the present study, a half-car model with five degrees of freedom has been developed by considering a vehicle equipped with two in-wheel motors on the rear axle as a sample vehicle. The braking strategy has been designed using a two-stage nonlinear predictive controller. The first stage will reach the appropriate pressure for the brake fluid lines. Then, in the second stage, the proper amount of electric regenerative torque is obtained using the electronic braking force distribution (EBD) function and considering all constraints. The amount of regenerative torque is calculated by considering the system constraints using the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions (KKT). Finally, the designed strategy is examined from the perspective of safety and vehicle mileage capability. The results show that optimal braking can be achieved, and the braking stopping distance can be reduced by utilizing the designed controller and the proposed model. Also, the amount of regenerated energy to the battery can be increased during braking by using the proposed braking strategy and the designed control system compared with the relevant studies. The proposed strategy enhanced the vehicle mileage by more than 24 percent while considering all constraints and limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Few studies of relationship between mileage and accident involvement. • Results of 7 multivariate studies synthesized. • Accident involvement proportional to square root of driving distance. The relationship between driver mileage and accident involvement has been a controversial topic for at least 20 years. The key issue is whether driver accident involvement rate increases in proportion to miles driven or has a non-linear relationship to miles driven. This paper presents a synthesis of evidence from studies of how the number of accidents per driver per unit of time relates to distance driven in the same period. Most studies of this relationship are methodologically weak and their results highly inconsistent and potentially misleading. Unreliable data and poor control for confounding factors characterise most studies. Only a few studies based on multivariate statistical models control for at least some of the confounding factors that may influence the relationship between distance driven and accident involvement. These studies consistently show that the number of accidents per driver per year increases less than in proportion to distance driven. A good approximation is that the number of accidents per driver per unit of time is proportional to the square root of distance driven. Potential methodological and substantive explanations of this finding are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is generally recognised that long distance travelling accounts for a significant part of the mileage of person travel. However, estimates have been hardly made. The paper estimates volume and GHG emissions of long-distance travel by Western Europeans. The analysis is predominantly based on data of the DATELINE project, the only EU-wide survey on long-distance travelling, conducted in 2001 and 2002. Some studies demonstrate that DATELINE suffers from serious underreporting of journeys. We analysed the causes for underreporting and developed expansion factors that correct for that. These gave the opportunity to estimate long-distance travel volumes and related GHG emissions in 2001/2002. Next an update to 2013 is made using statistics on the development of tourist travel and patronage of long-distance modes. Defining long distance ⩾100 km crow-fly, the estimates per capita in the Western European countries in 2013 are 7.5 journeys (defined as round-trips), 8600 km, and 1300 kg greenhouse gasses. The estimated total GHG emissions of long-distance travelling is 520 megaton. In the Netherlands and Flanders, countries where data on short-distance travelling were available, long-distance travelling accounts for 45% of the mileage and nearly 50% of the GHG emissions of all person transport. Long-distance travelling is growing and is expected to continue to grow, particularly by air. The GHG emissions are expected to grow as well, though to a smaller extent. Because short-distance travelling is stagnating, the shares of long distance travelling in both mileage and GHG emissions are likely to increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On-road emissions from urban traffic during interrupted and congested flow conditions are too high as compared to free-flow condition and often influenced by accelerating and decelerating speed due to frequent stop-and-go. In this study, we measured emissions from passenger cars and auto-rickshaws during peak and off-peak hours and analyzed according to different mileages with the instantaneous speed and acceleration for interrupted and congested traffic conditions. It was found that during flow, several short-events lasting over fractions of a second each lead to a sharp increase in pollutant emissions, indicating episodic conditions. The emission levels are sensitive to frequency and intensity of acceleration and deceleration, in accordance with the traffic-flow patterns and speed, besides mileages. Further, congestion conditions occur during both peak and off-peak hours, but last for different durations. The results are important in the sense that instantaneous estimates of pollutant emissions are necessary for the assessment of air quality in urban centers and for an effective traffic management plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Innovative fuel efficiency technologies as for example electrification and lightweight materials typically lead to a shift of emissions from the use phase to the production phase of a vehicle. Whether the efforts of applying sophisticated fuel saving technologies pay back in environmental terms over the products' lifetime depends directly on the lifetime mileage assumed. Currently, different 'educated guess' values of industry associations and car manufacturers ranging from 150,000 to 300,000 km are applied in automotive life cycle assessment (LCA). This study improves the database for LCA practitioners in the automotive industry by statistically determining empirical lifetime mileage values for different types of passenger cars. Methods: The analysis of different data sets of a sample of more than 800,000 vehicles in Germany is performed by using statistical techniques. Firstly, survival analysis is used to describe the typical lifetime of passenger cars by using the Weibull distribution. Secondly, regression analysis is used to describe the progression of mileage during the course of a car's life. The analysis differentiates eight different segments from urban small cars (A000) over midsized cars (A00, A0, A, B, C, D) to ultra luxury cars (E) as well as Otto and diesel engines. Results and discussions: The results show varying lifetimes and mileages of passenger cars depending on the engine type and vehicle segment. Many decisions on innovative automotive technologies are independent from the engine type. In this case, the recommendation of the authors is to differentiate between three different groups of segments (A00/A0, A/B, C) with mileages going from 170,000 over 200,000 to 230,000 km. There might even be cases where the usage of a segment-specific value is not recommended. In such cases, the average value of the obtained results of 200,000 km appears as feasible choice. Even though the primary data are from Germany only, it is assumed that the results obtained in this study can be used as a proxy estimate for the geographical area of Europe. Conclusions: The results of this paper can be used as default values for LCA practitioners performing automotive LCAs as they provide evidence-based values of passenger cars' lifetimes and mileages in a disaggregated way. The previously often used assumption of 150,000 km based on educated guess represents an underestimated value and should be replaced by the data obtained in this study. Using the proposed lifetime mileage data improves the validity and representativeness of automotive LCAs in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This letter investigates the fundamental differences between how California Independent System Operator (ISO) and Midcontinent ISO calculate performance accuracy scores in their performance-based regulation markets. Both ISOs tend to follow the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission order 755 to pay regulation resources—whether conventional generators or distributed and demand side resources—based on their actual performance. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are systematically explained. First, real-world ISO data are used to show that there may exist major differences between these two methods in scoring accuracy under similar regulation performance scenarios. Next, the root causes for the observed differences are studied mathematically. Finally, some suggestions are made to improve these scoring methods; should these or other ISOs seek to refine their scoring formulas. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The study aims at investigating the characteristics (size distribution, active surface and metal content) of particles emitted by cars as a function of mileage using a novel methodology for characterizing particulate emissions captured by Exhaust Gas Suspension (EGS). EGS was obtained by passing the exhaust gases through a container of deionized water. EGS analysis was performed using laser granulometry, electron scanning microscopy, and high resolution mass spectrometry. Implications of the differences in key features of the emitted particles on population exposure were investigated using numerical simulation for estimating size-segregated PM deposition across human respiratory tract (HRT). It was found that vehicle mileage, age and the respective emissions class have almost no effect on the size distribution of the exhaust gas particulate released into the environment; about half of the examined vehicles with low mileage were found to release particles of aerodynamic diameter above 10 μm. The exhaust gas particulate detected in the EGS of all cars can be classified into three major size classes: (1) 0.1–5 µm – soot and ash particles, metals (Au, Pt, Pd, Ir); (2) 10–30 µm – metal (Cr, Fe, Cu, Zr, Ni) and ash particles; (3) 400–1,000 µm – metal (Fe, Cr, Pb) and ash particles. Newer vehicles with low mileage are substantial sources of soot and metal particles with median diameter of 200 nm with a higher surface area (up to 89,871.16 cm 2 /cm 3 ). These tend to deposit in the lower part of the human respiratory tract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Negative externalities often surface after policies are implemented. This paper analyses how two “hard” Travel Demand Management (TDM) policies implemented in Singapore to target vehicle ownership and road usage may contribute to a negative externality namely excessive mileage accumulation. This has implications on resource depletion such as petrol wastage, higher CO 2 emission and losses in time and productivity. Vehicle ownership in Singapore is managed firstly via the requirement to bid for a Certificate of Entitlement (COE) which entitles the usage of local roads and secondly via the payment of an Additional Registration Fee (ARF) which is refundable between 75% and 50% to incentivise the de-registration of a vehicle before it is 10 years old. Such deregistered vehicles may also be eligible for a COE refund between 0% and 80% depending on age. The COE and ARF costs are significant as they typically account for more than half the purchase price of a vehicle. Furthermore, road usage is subject to Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) fees on busy segments. A sample of over 8700 used cars is analysed to infer the effects of the non-refundable (or “sunk”) and the “variable” portions of the combined cost of COE and ARF as well as the number of ERP gantries on mileage over and above traditional factors such as petrol price and engine size. The findings suggest tweaks to the TDM policies to reduce mileage and its negative implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of self-reported driver mileage, violations and crashes is very popular in traffic safety research, but their validity has been questioned. One way of testing validity is with an analysis of test–retest reliability. Three mechanisms might influence reliability in self report; actual changes in the variable over time, stable systematic reporting bias, and random error. Four samples of drivers who had responded twice to an online questionnaire asking them to report their mileage, violations and crashes were used and correlations between self reports for this data were calculated. The results for crashes were compared to expected correlations, calculated from the error introduced by the non-overlapping periods and the variable means. Reliability was fairly low, and controlling for mileage in the violations and crashes calculations did not strengthen the associations. The correlation between self reports of crashes in different time periods was found to be much larger than expected in one case, indicating a report bias, while the other correlation agreed with the predicted value. The correlations for overlapping time periods were much smaller than expected. These results indicate that drivers’ self reports about their mileage, violations and crashes are very unreliable, but also that several different mechanisms are operating. It is uncertain exactly under what circumstances different types of self report bias is operating. Traffic safety researchers should treat the use of self-reported mileage, violations and crashes with extreme caution and preferably investigate these variables with the use of objective data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mileage system in some online media, I have a lot of use. In addition, there are a lot of companies that are making money by using the mileage system. A mileage system is the first airline in such a way that the service in the late 1980s, many states now listed sungineung and features. In addition, there are many industries that reported good results using a mileage system used by carriers in other industries. However, mileage of the current game industry has not been introduced, it is not the service by using the concept of point returning to the user is purely a function of mileage. So a lot of developed payment systems in the mobile industry since 2010, proposed a better and more current online payment systems industry has an easy hybrid revenue model for mobile games service convergence mileage using this system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The top 5% of car users travel nearly 27,500 miles (4.8 times the average) and emit 5742 kg CO 2 annually (5.7 times the average). • The top 20% of car users in England travel 16,740 miles and emit 3200 kg CO 2 annually. • Male, high-income professionals and large car owners are more likely to record higher mileage. • Rationing the top 5% of car users would reduce emissions by 6.9% whilst rationing the top 20% would lead to reductions of 26%. • Rationing high CO2 emitters directly is more effective than rationing car mileage. This paper measures 'excess' car travel for its role in decarbonisation. On average, each English adult travels around 5,680 miles a year and emits 1,006 kg of CO 2. However, the top 5% 'excess' car users travel 4.8 times and emit 5.7 times the national average. Four binary logistic regression analyses were used to model the probability that people with specified characteristics belong to the 'excess' mileage and emitter groups. Results indicated that gender, employment and socio-economic status, household income (higher quintiles), company car availability, residential location and local population density were highly significant correlates of this 'excess' travel mileage. Multiple car ownership, business travel by car, multiple international flight frequencies and ownership of larger and diesel cars were positively associated with excess travel and emissions. A mileage rationing scheme targeting the top 20% users can cut emissions substantially (by 26%) compared to targeting 'excess' (top 5%) users only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increasing recognition that the choice of vehicle type and usage decisions form a crucial element in understanding transport-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The traditional approach to examining these dimensions is focused on vehicle fleet purchase decisions (number and type) and annual usage. These studies aggregate the overall vehicle usage as an annual decision, whereas in reality households face the choice of vehicle type for out-of-home activity participation on a daily basis. With the recent emphasis on activity–travel models, there is growing recognition that daily vehicle usage choice is affected by activity purpose choice and the travel group for the activity. This study develops a representative framework to examine daily vehicle type and usage decisions while incorporating the influence of activity type and accompaniment type choices. In the authors' approach, travel mode choice by considering the various travel mode alternatives (transit, walking/bicycling) and replacing the private vehicle alternative with various vehicle type options that are available to individuals is included. Thus the three choice dimensions, travel mode that implicitly considers vehicle type, activity purpose, and accompaniment type, are jointly analyzed by generating combination alternatives. The mixed multiple-discrete continuous extreme value (MMDCEV) framework provides an elegant modeling approach to study these choices. In the authors' study, the discrete component is formed as a combination of travel mode, activity purpose, and accompaniment type while mileage for each combination provides the continuous component. The proposed model approach is empirically tested for workers and non-workers in New York region using the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) 2009. The model results provide insights on how socio-demographics, location, and temporal attributes influence daily vehicle type and usage, activity type, and accompaniment type decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having replaced the diesel locomotives operated in Lithuanian railways by new ones, part of old diesel locomotives (21 units) were renovated. They were equipped with new diesel engines made in Kolomna (Russia). These diesel locomotives are used as reserve locomotives or for carrying small scope freight on local routes. After a few years from their renovation diesel engines as well as the locomotives started to fail. Failures happened to be repeated. The article analyses these locomotives' failure patterns such as number distribution of engine failures according to locomotive mileage, distribution of engine failures according to diesel locomotive turnover, distribution of engine failure number according to consumed fuel. It suggested to regard the density of engine failure probability according to consumed fuel as one of the indicators of engine reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]