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This research discusses mining and its relation with the science of energy archaeology; as well as the role of the tools used in the metal industry; during the Greco-Roman era in Ancient Egypt. It reviews the millstones and mills used in this era; as well as the role of humans and animals in energy production and the importance of wood and coal in biological energy production, in order to demonstrate the importance of the archaeology of energy in interpreting many businesses and industries of this era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Practical work results on the development of an experimental stand for wear tests of millstones for grinding of grain are presented. When designing the stand, the method of testing for abrasive wear during friction against loosely fixed abrasive particles was used. A feature of the test bench is that the movable and fixed millstones are made cone-shaped and during testing are in oscillatory motion relative to the stationary stand platform. The test bench is equipped with a drive shaft speed sensor, a temperature sensor and a strain gauge force sensor. The Arduino IDE microcontroller software is used to process the incoming data. The software allows one to display the current values of the measured parameters on the screen of a personal computer monitor. All data are saved to files for further processing, which significantly reduces the time for experimental studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the site of the Stroked Pottery culture settlement at Mšeno, querns (grinding stones), amongst other items, have been found. These are two-part grinding stones consisting of an upper and a lower stone. In terms of their form, according to morphological attributes, there are three basic types (plate-shaped, plano-convex and irregular in shape) and one pseudotype in a saddle shape. Several of them appeared to have symbolic significance. These grinding stones came from various feature types. At the same time, there was no causal link found between the function of the feature from which the quern came and the quern itself. Grinding tools were made of several types of rocks, but mainly of palaeorhyolite, outcrops of which are located at a distance of about 40 km. Various methods and forms of transport of the raw materials are discussed (transport along the River Elbe and then by land, whether the items were obtained by barter or theft, or by some cooperative mission to the sources), the possibility of the back side of the plano-convex querns being used for specific purposes is also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rotary mills or their stone parts, i. e. quern stones and millstones, occur only exceptionally at medieval and postmedieval castles - unlike the rural environment. The quern stone discovered in 2018 in the northern part of the castle courtyard near the eastern wall of Oponice castle's barbacan (Topoľčany district) is one of such exemplars. By its shape and size, we can assume that originally it was a La Tène quern. It was secondarily adapted and used as the rotating part of a hand mill probably during the castle's existence. The objective of our article is to explain the function of the unusual quern stone at Oponice castle and use of grinding tools at medieval and post-medieval castles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the 1st Annual mill POLstone Workshop held in Koszalin, Poland held from September 1-2, 2021. Topics disucssed include origin, use and sacralization millstones embedded in the walls of Gothic churches in the South Baltic Lowlands; original tools for milling grain and the role they played especially in cultures Stone Age and medieval pilgrimages to St. Host in Osieki, Poland.

Focusing on Nashtifan windmills in Razavi Khurasan Province, Iran, the present paper examines these structures in their physical and natural context. This research is directed in two ways: the small-scale that focuses on the windmills as individual manufacturing units and surveys their structural and functional characteristics, and the large-scale that looks at the formation of the windmills in connection with local and regional geographical factors. While laying emphasis on Nashtifan windmills, this paper underlines the significance of the study of the lesser-known windmills distributed across the province, many of which are on the verge of destruction. The examination of several sets of windmills in comparison with one another paves the way for a more detailed exploration of the construction and operation of Nashtifan windmills at the heart of this research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nea Paphos was a vibrant city in Roman Cyprus. Much information about the history and the inhabitants of the urban centre came to light through extensive excavations, which started at the site in the 1960s. The Hellenistic and Roman period has been widely studied and examined, but our knowledge of late Roman Paphos still remains quite modest. The purpose of this paper is to provide a better understanding of the late Roman phases of occupation, especially of the squatters’ activities in Paphos, through the analysis of stone objects, mainly grinding and milling stones and other worked stone, which are associated with this period.

The milling of cereals, other plants and materials is an activity that is essential to the subsistence of human societies. It is a task carried out for the most part by women. Querns are the most representative archaeological artefacts of this activity. However, querns are only a part of more complex operational sequences that stretch beyond these mechanisms and involve other tools such as mortars and sieves that yield a much broader range of cereal products than those commonly identified. This paper reviews a selection of publications from recent decades address this subject from the point of view of ethnography, ethnoarchaeology and archaeobotany, and takes into account a number of features serving to process the more common types of cereals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A great number of Roman millstones have been discovered in the archaeological site of Byrsa at Carthage since the nineteenth century by different international archaeological teams which have excavated the site. Most of these millstones (catilli/metae) are hourglass-shaped, and all are made of igneous rocks whose source was identified through petrochemical study. The location of the artefact rock source was determined by comparing thin sections of samples taken from black and red-brownish lava catilli found at the Byrsa Roman site with geological samples taken from Tunisian volcanic rocks located in the northern-western part of the country (Nefza and Mogods regions). The comparison shows that the volcanic petrological and geochemical compositions (basalt and rhyolitic ignimbrite) of the catilli are not from local sources where basaltic and rhyodacite outcrops have been identified in the Guelb Saad Moun (Mogods region) and in the Nefza region respectively. The comparison with existing literature data on similar rocks from Italy has constrained the volcanic origin of the exploited lavas. Thus, the diversity of volcanic rocks (basalt and rhyolitic ignimbrite) suggests several outside origins, such as the Pantelleria Island for the black lava mills and Sardinia (in the area of Mulargia) for the red-brownish lava mills, where these two types of igneous rocks have been widely identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two recent preventive archaeological excavations carried out in Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme) allowed to study the evolution of districts located in the outskirts of the antique city between the end of the first or the beginning of the second century and the Late Roman Empire. Buildings using for craft or commercial activities are standing close to residential settlements. They take place in marshy areas, on the fringes of the primitive center of the augustean period, that have been invested after important draining works. The control of the rivers crossing the two studied sites was followed by their exploitation. Therefore, water mills have been identified on each site, firstly thanks to the many wooden objects and to the millstones discovered during excavations, secondly thanks to the built remains’ analysis. So, the sites of Fontgiève and of the “Scène nationale” are two new examples of hydraulic installations in an urban context, which allowed to raise the question of the use of the water driving force in craft activities – the mill may not be the only one –, but also the question of the flour supply in antique cities.

The monograph by A.N. Sarapulov is positively evaluated in this review.The agricultural features of the Perm Cis-Urals medieval population in the VII-XV centuries AD are studied in the book. The author has systemized all the archaeological sources on the topic: tillage tools, harvest and processing tools, as well as grain storage constructions. Issues that provide the data on reconstruction of agricultural system and analysis the origin of arable agriculture in the region are of particular interest.

This article examines the evidence for fragmentation practices on Middle–Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–700 bc) settlement sites in Ireland by looking at two kinds of material: human remains, both burnt and non-burnt, and quern stones. It highlights evidence for the manipulation of non-burnt skulls through ‘de-facing’ and the potential retention of cranial and other fragments for ‘burial’ in settlements. It also explores the more difficult task of determining whether incomplete skeletal representation in cremated remains can be interpreted as deliberate fragmentation, and how the context of deposition must be considered. Human agency in relation to the fragmentation patterns of querns is also examined to understand whether the act of breaking these objects was intentional or unintended and if depositing them was symbolic or simply fortuitous. By discussing this evidence, I hope to contribute to the argument that the funerary and settlement spheres in later prehistoric Ireland were becoming increasingly intertwined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzed the crushed stone mining sector and its recent evolution. The research was conducted through a bibliometric analysis in CAPES Portal from 2007 to 2017. The period with the highest concentration of publications was from 2013 to 2016, and the countries with the most substantial number of publications are the USA and China. The advancement of technology shows how the improvement of equipment reflects the efficiency of crushed stone production. Through an overview of the market, it was observed that the European production presented stability in the last five years, while the American increased and the Brazilian decreased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents author's views on aspects related to milling stones and primitive methods of grinding variable materials and foods. Topics discussed include utility of stones as mortars and pestles in Southeastern States of U.S.; vegetal products found in the older sites; and circular motion of grinding.

For some years, a French-Belgian team of archaeologists and geologists is investigating the provenance of ancient quernstones and millstones. Their study revealed the frequent occurrence of particular coarse sandstones derived from Lower Devonian strata in the Ardenne region, known as either the "Arkose of Haybes" by geologists or the "Arkose of Macquenoise" by archaeologists. Material for Late Iron Age and Roman quern-stones and millstones was quarried from open pits located west of the border between France and Belgium, between the Belgian village of Macquenoise (Commune of Momignies, Province of Hainaut) and the French town of Hirson (Aisne Department, Hauts-de-France region). This paper describes the raw materials, presents the different types of grindstones produced through historical times and provides a detailed diffusion map of the millstones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bedrock ground stone features are ubiquitous along the canyons of the Chaquaqua Plateau in southeastern Colorado, U.S.A, however, we know very little about their distribution, function or relationship to the regional archaeology. While some argue that prehistoric inhabitants of southeastern Colorado constructed permanent milling spaces to process local food resources, others think they may have processed corn. Most assume they were used by groups of women to process food resources together. Recent research suggests that the bedrock ground stone features differ depending on where they occur on the landscape, but may also vary because of socio-cultural ideals, as yet unknown. Sub-features are used as heuristic categories to discuss ways in which bedrock ground stone features are indicative of social processes such as group work or social reproduction of knowledge through collective labor. In this paper, we use close-range photogrammetry to examine the use of the sub-feature category as a means to refine the archaeology of bedrock ground stone surfaces in the region. Results illustrate that CRP offers an objective means to critically analyze the relationship of ground stone surfaces on bedrock features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coast of the Mediterranean provide several remnants of ancient coastal quarries, which are now useful to study sea level change occurring during the last millennia. Millstones quarries were exploited with same quarrying techniques from rocks like beachrocks, sandstones or similar lithologies, were shaped to be suitable to grind olives, seeds and wheat, to produce oil and flour, or to break apart soft rocks. In this study we integrated historical sources, aerial photography, field surveys and palaeo sea-level modelling to investigate a number of millstones quarries with the aim to asses the intervening sea level change that occurred since the quarries were abandoned. We investigated on their chronology, spatial distribution and spatial relationship to the sea-level. Our results indicate that most of these were carved close to sea level between 1.45 ka and 0.25 ka cal BP, but mainly around 0.45 cal ka BP. Despite the uncertainties associated with the chronology in, we found good agreement between their lowest elevation (between 0.33 m and −0.06 m) and the paleo sea-levels, as predicted by the GIA models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Change in Mediterranean grinding technology during the Hellenistic/Roman period affected the pattern of dental microwear since external grit particles were finer when flour was prepared using large rotary querns. Therefore, it is possible to detect the technological change through the analysis of human dentition. Here, the sample of teeth from Kültepe (ancient Kanesh), Turkey, is investigated to determine if the grinding technology changed at this site between the Middle Bronze Age ( n = 12) and Hellenistic/Roman period ( n = 4). A Hellenistic/Roman sample from Assos ( n = 7) is also included for comparative purposes. The proportions and size of linear and nonlinear features did not differ significantly between periods or sites, which indicates that in spite of technical advances, old grinding technologies were still used in the Hellenistic/Roman period in Anatolia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Submarine surveys carried out since the '90s along the coastland of Sinuessa allowed us to draw up a geomorphological map with archaeological findings. Along the sea bottom, 650 m off and −7 m depth, a Campanian Ignimbrite bedrock was detected: dated ∼39 kyr BP, its position is incompatible with the current sea level. Towards the northern edge of the shoal, a depressed area with 24 cubic elements in concrete was surveyed. These artefacts ( pilae ) are typical of Roman maritime structures widespread along the southernmost Phlegrean coast. Beachrocks and accessory landforms at the same depth of bedrock suggest that this was emerging and attended by man in Roman times, even for activities related to port facilities. Submerged palaeo-channels, in alignment of current watercourses on the mainland, dissect the shoal. These channels were moulded in subaerial environment during Würm glaciation, following the tuff deposition, and then were drowned by sea-level rise. The northernmost channel, next to the pilae , likely allowed transit and manoeuvring of Roman ships. The discovery along the seabed of a large stump of lead anchor, hundreds of Roman amphorae and fragments, as well as of a depression of millstone, confirm this finding. Probably the sinuous physiography favored the choice of this site for the docking of Sinuessa, as sheltered from storms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Longola protohistoric village (spanning from the late Middle Bronze Age to the sixth century bc) is a perifluvial settlement located in the Sarno River floodplain to the north-east of Pompeii (southern Italy) and east of the Somma-Vesuvius volcano. A great abundance of artefacts have been found at Longola and in the neighbouring areas, including a variety of volcanic stone objects, mainly related to building and to the manufacture of ordinary tools and instruments. The aim of our work is to characterize lithic objects (lava pebbles and millstones) and to understand their geological provenance by petrographic and geochemical studies. Compositions of millstone samples (porphyritic phonolitic tephrites) and of a set of pebbles (mainly phonolitic tephrites, leucite-shoshonites and trachytes) are compatible with the Somma-Vesuvius magmas erupted before 8 ka bp. For the trachyte lithics, an additional source from the Accademia lava dome (Phlegrean Fields) cannot be ruled out. Among the pebble samples, a rhyolite and a poorly evolved trachyte clearly lie outside the compositional variation of the Somma-Vesuvius and other volcanoes of the Naples area (e.g., Ischia and the Phlegrean Fields) and emphasize an extra-regional provenance. Ponza Island is the best candidate for the provenance of the above two outlier samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes and tests the idea that a major change in technology associated with the grinding of cereals may account for changes in asymmetry in the upper arms of women in the Neolithic through Iron Age across a large area of Europe. It has been observed that bilateral asymmetry in humeral strength (i.e., polar section modulus) decreased to near zero in early agricultural females, but increased again during the Iron Age. These changes in asymmetry in females have been interpreted as the direct consequence of the adoption of the saddle quern at the start of the Neolithic and its subsequent replacement by the rotary quern in the Iron Age. To test the impact of these alternative cereal grinding methods, we tested the efficiency of saddle and rotary quern grinding with 16 female volunteers and the effect of grinding on muscle activity of the upper limb with 20 female volunteers. We used electromyography to measure muscle activity in the pectoralis , deltoideus , infraspinatus and triceps muscles and adjusted muscle activity for efficiency and muscle size. Saddle quern grinding was 4.3 times less efficient than rotary quern grinding and produced a significantly higher amount of coarse- and middle-grained flour but a significantly lower amount of very fine grained flour than rotary quern grinding. Saddle quern grinding showed symmetrical muscle activity in all four studied muscles, whereas rotary quern grinding yielded consistent directional asymmetry in a majority of muscles even during bimanual rotation. Saddle quern grinding required about twice as much muscle activity per kg of grain when adjusted for muscle size than rotary quern grinding. Our results support the view that saddle quern grinding may have played a major role in the decrease in directional asymmetry in humeral strength in early agricultural females and that the adoption of the rotary quern during the Iron Age may have increased humeral directional asymmetry mainly because of increased asymmetrical loading and the reduced time needed for grinding in favor of other manipulative tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an intriguing material culture in stoneware i.e. stone bowls and saddle querns that were reported by the author from the early historic sites in a systematic transect survey of north-west Kashmir. This stoneware has previously been reported from only three places in Kashmir and roughly bracketed within a chronological date range of c. 1000 BCE to c. 3rd Century ACE. This stoneware was first reported from Megalithic phase at Gufkral. Till date there is very little work carried on this stoneware, however, similar material culture has been reported from few south Asian sites as well. In this paper an attempt has been made to analyse this intriguing material culture and put this in context with similar material from South Asia to understand its chronological significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The Morgantina archaeological area, inhabited from the Early Bronze Age, had its widest expansion from the fifth to the first century bc. The volcanic millstones found at Morgantina fall into three different groups on the basis of the milling technique: (i) saddle querns (known from the Middle-Late Bronze Age and Iron Age); (ii) rectangular hopper-rubbers (Olynthian) millstones, the invention of which dates to the fifth century bc; and finally (iii) Morgantina-type rotary millstones (starting to be used from the fourth to the third century bc). In order to determine the provenance of the raw materials (lavas) used for all these millstone types, we collected 38 very small rock samples for thin-section modal mineralogy, petrography and major trace element composition. The results have contributed to classifying different lithotypes and distinguishing between provenance from Etna and the Hyblean Mountains, the two volcanic areas respectively north-east and south-east of Morgantina. Saddle querns are made of tholeiitic basaltic andesites from the Hyblean Mountains and transitional basalts, mugearites and hawaiites from Etna. The variety of sources of portable saddle querns, mostly used in households, indicate that there was no general preference for specific quarrying sites. By contrast, the rectangular hopper-rubber and the Morgantina-type millstones, which document the period of Morgantina's greatest prosperity, are almost completely made of hawaiites from Etna. The use of a specific lithotype (i.e., Etna hawaiite) for the more efficient rectangular hopper-rubber and rotary millstones could be linked to the fact that these mills may have been operated in business establishments. It is worth noting that the Gornalunga river was, in antiquity, a waterway joining Morgantina to the final stretch of the Simeto river and then the Ionian coast. The best candidate areas for the millstone hawaiite quarrying sites from Etna are the far south-western sectors of the volcano, along the Simeto Valley (i.e., the 'Piano Provenzana' Formation) or the inner suburb of present-day Catania (i.e., the 'Pietracannone' Formation). The very efficient Morgantina-type rotary millstones spread during the reign of Hieron II of Syracuse (275-215 bc) in eastern Sicily and met the need for grinding large quantities of cereals during a relatively peaceful time and a period of agricultural development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite continuing interest in whether plant residues and microwear can give an archaeological 'signature' for the grinding of grain, few studies have looked at what is actually present on ethnographic seed-grinders. In this paper, we map the distribution of use-polish and residues on a classic Central Australian millstone. We begin by setting out an explanatory 'cradle-to-grave' model of the dynamics of millstones to assist our interpretations. We then apply various methods of functional analysis to map the distribution of microwear and residues across the millstone. Several dynamics are evident: (1) the kinetics of grinding create spatial variability in use-polish and residues; (2) systemic factors lead to a palimpsest of different residues, not all of which relate to the major function of the implement; and (3) various systemic factors degrade some of the traces on millstones well before they are buried. Our results for this Central Australian millstone show that there is substantial variability within and between grinding grooves, reflecting the continuing attrition of these surfaces. Starch, which was presumably a primary residue, is poorly preserved, even on the most recent ground surfaces. There is a diversity of other residues present, reflecting secondary use of this millstone as an impromptu work surface. We conclude that the long systemic use-lives of these durable implements can complicate their identification as seed-grinders, and raise issues for future functional research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Europeans started to come to India at the beginning of the 16th century for trade. The Portuguese were the first group of Europeans to reach the southwestern coast of India in 1498 and establish their colonies. They were also the last group of the Europeans to leave the Indian territory after ruling a part of the country for about 450 years. With their arrival, new technology and warfare tactics were introduced in the region. Associated with their artillery, preparation of gunpowder as a new technology was introduced in Goa. Gigantic sized millstones were used for the production of gunpowder in Casa de Polvora, Panelim, Goa. In 2007, when real estate developers commenced their construction work at Casa de Polvora, the Archaeological Survey of India salvaged the endangered millstones from Panelim. The aim of the present communication is to analyse the samples and to find out whether the stone used was quarried from Dharavi (Uttan; which was a part of Bassein territory of the Portuguese) from where the Portuguese acquired stones on a large scale for the decoration of churches in Goa. To achieve this, archaeological, petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical studies have been carried out on samples of millstones and the quarried site at Dharavi (Uttan). In addition sample was also collected from cannon ball found at Arsenal (Old Goa) to find out whether stone from Dharavi (Uttan) was used. The analytical results suggest that the millstones are made of limestone, the Dharavi (Uttan) stone is more siliceous - and the cannon balls are made from basalt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main quarrying area of the Mulargia ignimbrite, used mainly to produce rotary millstones during the Hellenistic and Roman age, has been identified and sampled in order to update and complete the petrographic and geochemical database by employing standard analytical methods (optical microscopy and ICP-AES/MS spectrometry). The combination of petrographic and geochemical data concerning the Tertiary rhyodacitic to rhyolitic ignimbrites outcropping in central west Sardinia, previously very poor, form a helpful tool for future work on this important typology of volcanic millstones. The data bank obtained has been used to verify the geological source of eight millstones discovered in different rural settlements of Hellenistic Numidia and Roman Africa Proconsularis supposed by archaeologists to be made of ignimbrite from Mulargia. The results of the petro-archaeometric study confirmed a Sardinian origin for these millstones and represent one of the very few analytical proofs of their effective export to North Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Investigations in 2010 by an international team of maritime archaeologists yielded a concentration of artefacts identified here by the authors as the remains of a shipwreck off the southern coastal village of Godawaya, Sri Lanka. The major findings from this site include many quern stones, various types of ceramics, and glass ingots. The comparative study of the artefacts from the Godawaya site and terrestrial sites of Sri Lanka and India suggest that the ship might have originated from the southern part of the Indian subcontinent. Based on analysis of the artefacts and radiocarbon dating of wood fragments from the site, a broad date of 2nd BCE to 2nd centuries CE is assigned to the assemblage, placing it within the early historical period. Thus, this is the earliest known and as-yet investigated shipwreck in South Asia. The survey findings are discussed and the assemblage is contextualised within the present lack of evidence for early vessels and seafaring in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The coasts of Italy still preserve several remnants of coastal quarries built in antiquity, that now provide insights into the intervening sea-level changes occurred during the last millennia. In this paper, we show and discuss a new class of sea level indicator consisting of millstones carved along the rocky coast of southern Italy since 2500 BP, that are currently submerged. They were extracted from beachrocks, sandstones or similar sedimentary rocks, easier for carving by ancient carving tools. Our study focuses on 10 coastal sites located at Capo d'Orlando, Avola, and Letojanni, in Sicily; Soverato, Tropea, and Capo dell'Armi, in Calabria; Castellabate, Palinuro, and Scario, in Campania; and Polignano San Vito, in Apulia. Unfortunately, only limited archaeological information is available for these anthropic structures. Scario, one of these millstone quarries discussed here, has been dated through independent archaeological remains, allowing us to restrict the exploitation age to the end of XVII century. Present day elevations of these coastal sites were obtained through geo-archaeological surveys calibrated using the nearest tidal stations, together with geomorphological and tectonic interpretations. Data were compared against the latest sea level predictions based on glacio-hydro-isostatic models. Our results allow proposal of the age-range of these millstone quarries and to estimate the intervening relative sea level changes since the time when they were carved. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

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The article offers information on the history of quernstones found in two different buildings in Faroe Island. It details the dimension and characteristics of the quern stones, which were common in the western part of the Viking world. It also describes the very rough quernstone which was consists of feldspar-phyric basalt. Images of different quern stones found in the island are also provided.