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The evidence base for the effectiveness of art therapy continues to grow, even as a mechanistic understanding of how art therapy works remains limited. One promising avenue for increasing our understanding of how and why art therapy works is through the lens of neuroscience. A neuroscience-based approach to art therapy provides opportunities for improving understanding of the neural processes that underlie the complex interaction between perception, cognition, emotion and behavior that play out in the art therapy process. Understanding how therapeutic change occurs can result in improved treatment and better outcomes for clients. However, it can be tricky to connect art therapy and psychological theory directly to neural responses. The purposes of this perspective are to provide an overview of the current evidence and limits of neurobiological concepts of neuroplasticity, mirror systems, and interoception as applied to art therapy practice, and to provide updated information about outdated concepts that are still actively used in clinical practice. Critical analysis and understanding of the current scientific knowledge base can then be used to guide art therapy practice and support the development of hypothesis-based research to determine the primary mechanisms that drive the observed effects of art therapy interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study aimed to investigate the effects of Video-Based Action Observation Training and Live Action Observation Training on motor function, activity participation, and secondary outcome measures in children with spastic diparetic cerebral palsy (CP). Materials and Methods: Thirty-nine children with spastic diparetic cerebral palsy, aged 5-14 years, with Gross Motor Function Classification System I-III, were distributed in equal numbers to any of the Video-Based Action Observation Training (conventional physiotherapy + Video-Based Action Observation Training), Live Action Observation Training (conventional physiotherapy + Live Action Observation Training), and control (conventional physiotherapy) groups through stratified randomization. For 8 weeks, action observation training groups received 20 minutes of conventional physiotherapy followed by 20 minutes of action observation training, and the control group received 40 minutes of conventional physiotherapy. Primary outcome measures were Gross Motor Function Measurement and Child and Adolescent Scale of Participation, secondary outcome measures were Pediatric Berg Balance Scale, timed-up-and-go test, five times sit-to-stand test (FTSST), Gillette Functional Assessment Questionnaire (GFAQ), and 1-minute walk test (1MWT). Results: Improvements were observed in all other evaluation parameters of the groups except Gross Motor Function Measurement–lying and rolling (P =.066) in the Live Action Observation Training Group, and lying and rolling (P =.317) and crawling and kneeling (P =.063) motor subtests and Gillette Functional Assessment Questionnaire–walking scale (P =.513) in the control group. Comparisons of the increases in all other measurements between the groups, except for the dimensions of Gross Motor Function Measurement–lying and rolling (P =.172), were statistically significant (P <.05) and this difference was in favor of action observation training. Conclusion: It was found that 2 different AOTs applied in addition to conventional physiotherapy in children with spastic diparetic cerebral palsy were more effective on all outcomes than was conventional physiotherapy alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To compare the vibrational patterns of human and guinea pig cochleae accurately, we developed and validated a novel finite element model of the guinea pig, leveraging it to analyze vibrational patterns in the cochlea. This approach is mirrored in our examination of the human cochlear model, providing granular insights into the nuances of human bone conduction hearing. The comparative analysis reveals that the guinea pig cochlea mirrors human cochlear vibrational patterns, thus serving as an efficient proxy for exploring human cochlear function. The human mastoid and the upper region of the guinea pig's skull are recommended as the convenient and comparable sites for bone conduction stimulation. The cochlear vibration pattern encompasses a mix of rigid, rotational, and compressive motion. Significantly, the guinea pig model demonstrates robust agreement with existing experimental data and other studies, these findings are confirming the validity of the model. Our study delineates the distinct roles of the three vibration types across various frequency spectrums. At lower frequencies, rigid motion is the dominant mechanism, supplemented by rotational motion. However, at higher frequencies, the influence of rigid motion wanes, ceding prominence to rotational and compressive motions. This trend is consistently observed in both human and guinea pig models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Area 8A has traditionally been considered to be the frontal eye field (FEF), i.e. the area for the motor production of eye movements. However, recent research has shown that the FEF lies posteriorly in premotor area 6. Research in macaque monkeys has demonstrated that, in contrast to premotor area 6, which is involved in the production of motor actions, area 8A is implicated in the cognitive allocation of attention to stimuli based on instruction cues. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the specific cognitive role of area 8A by examining a unique patient with a lesion restricted to area 8A, i.e. sparing the premotor cortex. This right‐handed male patient underwent neuropsychological assessment and testing on two conditional associative‐learning tasks: the motor hand conditional associative‐learning task (MCALT) assessing the selection of motor actions based on instruction cues and the visual conditional associative‐learning task (VCALT) assessing the selection of visual stimuli based on instruction cues. The patient's performance on the VCALT was significantly impaired compared to control subjects, but performance on the MCALT and on an Eye Movement Control Task was preserved. The present study provides evidence that area 8A is critical for the cognitive process regulating the allocation of attention to different stimuli in the environment, but not in the production of eye movements. These findings enhance understanding of the functional organization of the posterior dorsolateral frontal region in the human brain and suggest a specialized role of area 8A in high‐level cognitive processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We found a rapid decrease in the number of scientific publications on mirror neurons and their implication in high-level processes of action understanding (empathy, mind-reading, and action understanding) after a wave of criticisms especially since 2010. • We did not find any time lag between the peaks of publication on high-level processes of action understanding in the field of psychiatry compared to other fields. • Our findings indicate effective knowledge dissemination between psychiatric research and other research fields. For more than thirty years, a huge stream of research has enlightened the functions of Mirror Neurons (MNs) in humans and animals. Criticisms have been published, especially since 2010, targeting neuropsychological hypotheses of the MNs which refer to empathy and mind-reading (i.e., high-level processes of action understanding), as well as the extrapolation of the MNs in an attempt to explain the etiology of psychiatric disorders, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. One would expect that these criticisms be considered with a time lag in the field of psychiatry because they were not originally formulated in that field, that these hypotheses have gained significant popularity, and that criticism of the "broken mirror theory" of ASD emerged at a later stage. We conducted an analysis of publications on MNs on PubMed. We identified 2,595 publications on "Mirror Neuron" from January 1995 until the 27th of May 2023; 443 concerned psychiatric disorders and another 550 publications were related to high-level processes of action understanding. We found no time lag in publications on high-level processes of action understanding of MNs between the peaks of publications on psychiatric disorders and all the other publications (both peaks in June 2014). Our findings indicate effective knowledge dissemination between psychiatric research and other research fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inter-species emotional relationships, particularly the symbiotic interaction between humans and dogs, are complex and intriguing. Humans and dogs share fundamental mammalian neural mechanisms including mirror neurons, crucial to empathy and social behavior. Mirror neurons are activated during the execution and observation of actions, indicating inherent connections in social dynamics across species despite variations in emotional expression. This study explores the feasibility of using deep-learning Artificial Intelligence systems to accurately recognize canine emotions in general environments, to assist individuals without specialized knowledge or skills in discerning dog behavior, particularly related to aggression or friendliness. Starting with identifying key challenges in classifying pleasant and unpleasant emotions in dogs, we tested advanced deep-learning techniques and aggregated results to distinguish potentially dangerous human--dog interactions. Knowledge transfer is used to fine-tune different networks, and results are compared on original and transformed sets of frames from the Dog Clips dataset to investigate whether DogFACS action codes detailing relevant dog movements can aid the emotion recognition task. Elaborating on challenges and biases, we emphasize the need for bias mitigation to optimize performance, including different image preprocessing strategies for noise mitigation in dog recognition (i.e., face bounding boxes, segmentation of the face or body, isolating the dog on a white background, blurring the original background). Systematic experimental results demonstrate the system's capability to accurately detect emotions and effectively identify dangerous situations or signs of discomfort in the presence of humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study aimed to investigate the neural mechanisms that differentiate mind--body practices from aerobic physical activities and elucidate their effects on cognition and healthy aging. We examined functional brain connectivity in older adults (age > 60) without pre-existing uncontrolled chronic diseases, comparing Tai Chi with Water Aerobics practitioners. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional, case--control fMRI study involving two strictly matched groups (n = 32) based on gender, age, education, and years of practice. Seed-to-voxel analysis was performed using the Salience, and Frontoparietal Networks as seed regions in Stroop Word-Color and N-Back tasks and Resting State. Results: During Resting State condition and using Salience network as a seed, Tai Chi group exhibited a stronger correlation between Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Insular Cortex areas (regions related to interoceptive awareness, cognitive control and motor organization of subjective aspects of experience). In N-Back task and using Salience network as seed, Tai Chi group showed increased correlation between Left Supramarginal Gyrus and various cerebellar regions (related to memory, attention, cognitive processing, sensorimotor control and cognitive flexibility). In Stroop task, using Salience network as seed, Tai Chi group showed enhanced correlation between Left Rostral Prefrontal Cortex and Right Occipital Pole, and Right Lateral Occipital Cortex (areas associated with sustained attention, prospective memory, mediate attention between external stimuli and internal intention). Additionally, in Stroop task, using Frontoparietal network as seed, Water Aerobics group exhibited a stronger correlation between Left Posterior Parietal Lobe (specialized in word meaning, representing motor actions, motor planning directed to objects, and general perception) and different cerebellar regions (linked to object mirroring). Conclusion: Our study provides evidence of differences in functional connectivity between older adults who have received training in a mind--body practice (Tai Chi) or in an aerobic physical activity (Water Aerobics) when performing attentional and working memory tasks, as well as during resting state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actions are rarely devoid of emotional content. Thus, a more complete picture of the neural mechanisms underlying the mental simulation of observed actions requires more research using emotion information. The present study used high‐density electroencephalography to investigate mental simulation associated with facial emotion categorisation. Alpha‐mu rhythm modulation was measured at each frequency, from 8 Hz to 13 Hz, to infer the degree of sensorimotor simulation. Results suggest the sensitivity of the sensorimotor activity to emotional information, because (1) categorising static images of neutral faces as happy or sad was associated with stronger suppression in the central region than categorising clearly happy faces, (2) there was preliminary evidence indicating that the strongest suppression in the central region was in response to neutral faces, followed by sad and then happy faces and (3) in the control task, which required categorising images with the head oriented right, left, or forward as right or left, differences between conditions showed a pattern more indicative of task difficulty rather than sensorimotor engagement. Dissociable processing of emotional information in facial expressions and directionality information in head orientations was further captured in beta band activity (14–20 Hz). Stronger mu suppression to neutral faces indicates that sensorimotor simulation extends beyond crude motor mimicry. We propose that mu rhythm responses to facial expressions may serve as a biomarker for empathy circuit activation. Future research should investigate whether atypical or inconsistent mu rhythm responses to facial expressions indicate difficulties in understanding or sharing emotions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Previous studies have reported that the sense of "self" is associated with specific brain regions and neural network activities. In addition, the mirror system, which functions when executing or observing an action, might contribute to differentiating the self from others and form the basis of the sense of self as a fundamental physical representation. This study investigated whether differences in mu suppression, an indicator of mirror system activity, reflect cognitions related to self-other discrimination. Methods: The participants were 30 of healthy college students. The participants observed short video clips of hand movements performed by themselves or actors from two perspectives (i.e., first-person and third-person). The electroencephalogram (EEG) mu rhythm (8–13 Hz) was measured during video observation as an index of mirror neuron system activity. EEG activity related to self-detection was analyzed using participants' hand movements as self-relevant stimuli. Results: The results showed that mu suppression in the 8–13-Hz range exhibited perspective-dependent responses to self/other stimuli. There was a significant self-oriented mu suppression response in the first-person perspective. However, the study found no significant response orientation in the third-person perspective. The results suggest that mirror system activity may involve self-other discrimination differently depending on the perspective. Conclusions: In summary, this study examined the mirror system's activity for self and others using the EEG's mu suppression. As a result, it was suggested that differences in self and others or perspectives may influence mu suppression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aimed to evaluate the functions efficiency of Mirror Neurons Cells in children with Intellectual Disability and children with autism spectrum disorder, compared to Normal Children at the same age. The study sample consisted of 22 children with Intellectual Disability (15 males, 7 females), And 25 children with autism spectrum disorder (23 males, 2 females), and 30 Normal Children (20 males, 10 females). The Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Form, and Gilliam Autism Rating Scales, and a test of the functions of Mirror Neurons Cells (prepared by the researchers) were used. The study results indicated a significant deficiency in the efficiency of mirror neurons in performing their functions in children with Intellectual Disabilities and children with autism spectrum disorder, compared to Normal Children. Additionally, the results found that the efficiency of Mirror Neurons Cells in performing their functions in children with autism spectrum disorder was extremely weak compared to the efficiency of Mirror Neurons Cells in performing their functions in children with Intellectual Disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simulation theories predict that the observation of other's expressions modulates neural activity in the same centres controlling their production. This hypothesis has been developed by two models, postulating that the visual input is directly projected either to the motor system for action recognition (motor resonance) or to emotional/interoceptive regions for emotional contagion and social synchronization (emotional resonance). Here we investigated the role of frontal/insular regions in the processing of observed emotional expressions by combining intracranial recording, electrical stimulation and effective connectivity. First, we intracranially recorded from prefrontal, premotor or anterior insular regions of 44 patients during the passive observation of emotional expressions, finding widespread modulations in prefrontal/insular regions (anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula, orbitofrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus) and motor territories (Rolandic operculum and inferior frontal junction). Subsequently, we electrically stimulated the activated sites, finding that (i) in the anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula, the stimulation elicited emotional/interoceptive responses, as predicted by the 'emotional resonance model'; (ii) in the Rolandic operculum it evoked face/mouth sensorimotor responses, in line with the 'motor resonance' model; and (iii) all other regions were unresponsive or revealed functions unrelated to the processing of facial expressions. Finally, we traced the effective connectivity to sketch a network-level description of these regions, finding that the anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula are reciprocally interconnected while the Rolandic operculum is part of the parieto-frontal circuits and poorly connected with the former. These results support the hypothesis that the pathways hypothesized by the 'emotional resonance' and the 'motor resonance' models work in parallel, differing in terms of spatio-temporal fingerprints, reactivity to electrical stimulation and connectivity patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurofeedback training (NFT) is a promising adjuvant intervention method. The desynchronization of mu rhythm (8–13 Hz) in the electroencephalogram (EEG) over centro-parietal areas is known as a valid indicator of mirror neuron system (MNS) activation, which has been associated with social skills. Still, the effect of neurofeedback training on the MNS requires to be well investigated. The present study examined the possible impact of NFT with a mu suppression training protocol encompassing 15 NFT sessions (45 min each) on 16 healthy neurotypical participants. In separate pre- and post-training sessions, 64-channel EEG was recorded while participants (1) observed videos with various types of movements (including complex goal-directed hand movements and social interaction scenes) and (2) performed the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test" (RMET). EEG source reconstruction analysis revealed statistically significant mu suppression during hand movement observation across MNS-attributed fronto-parietal areas after NFT. The frequency analysis showed no significant mu suppression after NFT, despite the fact that numerical mu suppression appeared to be visible in a majority of participants during goal-directed hand movement observation. At the behavioral level, RMET accuracy scores did not suggest an effect of NFT on the ability to interpret subtle emotional expressions, although RMET response times were reduced after NFT. In conclusion, the present study exhibited preliminary and partial evidence that mu suppression NFT can induce mu suppression in MNS-attributed areas. More powerful experimental designs and longer training may be necessary to induce substantial and consistent mu suppression, particularly while observing social scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Psychological Science is the property of Psychological Science Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

OBJECTIVE: Upper limb (UL) dysfunction rehabilitation in stroke patients is complicated in the clinic. Action observation therapy’s (AOT) impact on mirror neurons (MNs) has been observed and made applications in related brain disease treatment. Acupuncture mentioned in the present study mainly stimulates peripheral nerves for neuronal plasticity. However, the clinical effect of AOT impact on MNs and acupuncture irritate afferent nerve fibers in combination for UL motor impairment rehabilitation after stroke is still unclear. In the present study, we investigate the central and peripheral neural stimulation meanwhile for UL recovery with stroke patients. METHODS: In this clinical study, 82 stroke patients recruited with impaired UL were randomly assigned to three groups. Twenty-four cases were in the AOT group, 28 cases were in the AOT combined acupuncture treatment group, and 30 cases were in the acupuncture treatment group. All volunteers were scored for limb function through the Fugl–Meyer Assessment of the Upper Extremity (FMA-UE), the Action Research Arm Test, and the modified Barthel Index (BI) before and after a systematic treatment according to the groups. Meanwhile, conventional physical therapy was also implemented for all cases. RESULTS: Before the specific intervention, the scores of FMA-UE, FMA-UE, and BI with all stroke patients have no significant statistical difference (P > 0.05). After the corresponding treatment, we assessed UL function again at 4 and 8 weeks. At 4 weeks, the patients with AOT showed a significant increase in BI scores compared to the acupuncture group (P < 0.05). At 8 weeks, the FMA-UE scores of the patients with AOT combined with acupuncture were significantly increased than acupuncture alone (P < 0.05). We also observed that the BI scores of the combination and the AOT group both were improved compared to the acupuncture group with significant statistical analysis (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Based on the MNs theory, we adopted AOT impact on MNs which would be a promising rehabilitation technique, especially combined with acupuncture treatment in UL recovery of stroke. Mirror therapy seems to be effective for central neuronal plasticity, but for action or AOT, there is still insufficient evidence to recommend its optimal strategy and neuromodulation mechanism. Here, research on the MNs-based AOT technique with acupuncture in UL dysfunction with stroke patients is recommended. TRIAL REGISTRATION: http://www.chictr.org.cn (identifier: ChiCTR2300077010).

This study explores the cognitive and corporeal aspects of choreography as a means of expressing the human subconscious. Recent interdisciplinary research, including studies of somatic intelligence and mirror neurons, suggests that dance can influence human cognitive abilities through psychosomatics. Mirror neurons allow for kinesthetic empathy, enabling dance observers to experience movements, emotions, and experiences as their own. The authors argue that dance, which engages multiple aspects of a person, is a crucial tool for educating the younger generation and should be included in compulsory education programs, rather than just as extracurricular activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Parkinson's Disease-Cognitive Rating Scale (PD-CRS) is a widely used tool for detecting mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients, however, the neuroanatomical underpinnings of this test's outcomes require clarification. This study aims to: (a) investigate cortical volume (CVol) and cortical thickness (CTh) disparities between PD patients exhibiting mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI) and those with preserved cognitive abilities (PD-IC); and (b) identify the structural correlates in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of overall PD-CRS performance, including its subtest scores, within a non-demented PD cohort. Materials and methods: This study involved 51 PD patients with Hoehn & Yahr stages I-II, categorized into two groups: PD-IC (n =≤36) and PD-MCI (n =≤15). Cognitive screening evaluations utilized the PD-CRS and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). PD-MCI classification adhered to the Movement Disorder Society Task Force criteria, incorporating extensive neuropsychological assessments. The interrelation between brain morphology and cognitive performance was determined using FreeSurfer. Results: Vertex-wise analysis of the entire brain demonstrated a notable reduction in CVol within a 2,934"mm2 cluster, encompassing parietal and temporal regions, in the PD-MCI group relative to the PD-IC group. Lower PD-CRS total scores correlated with decreased CVol in the middle frontal, superior temporal, inferior parietal, and cingulate cortices. The PD-CRS subtests for Sustained Attention and Clock Drawing were associated with cortical thinning in distinct regions: the Clock Drawing subtest correlated with changes in the parietal lobe, insula, and superior temporal cortex morphology; while the PD-CRS frontal-subcortical scores presented positive correlations with CTh in the transverse temporal, medial orbitofrontal, superior temporal, precuneus, fusiform, and supramarginal regions. Additionally, PD-CRS subtests for Semantic and Alternating verbal fluency were linked to CTh changes in orbitofrontal, temporal, fusiform, insula, and precentral regions. Conclusion: PD-CRS performance mirrors neuroanatomical changes across extensive fronto-temporo-parietal areas, covering both lateral and medial cortical surfaces, in PD patients without dementia. The observed changes in CVol and CTh associated with this cognitive screening tool suggest their potential as surrogate markers for cognitive decline in PD. These findings warrant further exploration and validation in multicenter studies involving independent patient cohorts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. Rehabilitation utilizing mirror neurons leverages the brain's capacity for action observation (AO) and motor imagery (MI) to enhance motor function. This approach involves patients imitating movements observed in therapists or videos, aiming to improve gait, coordination, and overall quality of life. Mirror neuron activation facilitates motor learning and may decelerate disease progression, thus enhancing patient mobility and independence. Methods: This scoping review aimed to map current evidence on PD therapies employing mirror neuron-based rehabilitation. Databases searched included PubMed, PEDro, and Cochrane. The review included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews that examined the effects of AO and MI in PD rehabilitation. Results: Five studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing various rehabilitation techniques focusing on AO and MI. These studies consistently demonstrated positive outcomes, such as reduced disease severity and improved quality of life, gait, and balance in PD patients. The activation of mirror neurons through AO and MI was shown to facilitate motor learning and contribute to improved functional mobility. Conclusions: Although the included studies support the beneficial impact of AO and MI techniques in PD rehabilitation, numerous questions remain unresolved. Further research is necessary to evaluate the potential integration of these techniques into standard physiotherapy routines for PD patients. This review highlights the promise of AO and MI in enhancing motor rehabilitation for PD, suggesting the need for more comprehensive studies to validate and refine these therapeutic approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mixed-signal binarized neural network (BNN) processor for the MNIST image classification is demonstrated based on analogue circuit networks. BNN algorithm for training neural networks with binary weights and activations reduces power consumption and memory size. This algorithm is a design to perform core operations of multi-layer perceptron (MLP) to reduce complexity and power consumption using analogue circuits. The mixed-signal BNN processor employs a current mirror neuron to perform multiply-and-accumulate (MAC) operations and sign activation functions. The near-threshold current mirror neuron that computes the key operations of the BNN algorithm is used to achieve low power consumption. The design occupies 0.065 mm2 in 28-nm CMOS with 560B of on-chip SRAM. The 28-nm CMOS test-chip achieves energy efficiency of 24.1 TOPS/W and 94% accuracy on the MNIST image classification. This design with binary weights and activations exhibits only 5% degradation in accuracy compared with the models with floating-point precision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In intentional behavior, the final goal of an action is crucial in determining the entire sequence of motor acts. Neurons have been described in the inferior parietal lobule of monkeys, which besides encoding a specific motor act (e.g., grasping), have their discharge modulated by the final goal of the intended action (e.g., grasping-to-eat). Many of these "action-constrained" neurons have mirror properties responding to the observation of the motor act they encode, provided that this is embedded in a specific action. Thanks to this mechanism, the observers have an internal copy of the whole action before its execution and may, in this way, understand the agent's intention. The chained organization of motor acts has been demonstrated in schoolchildren. Here, we examined whether this organization is already present in very young children. To this purpose, we recorded EMG from the mylohyoid (MH) muscle in the children aged 3 to 6 y. The results showed that preschoolers, like older children, possess the chained organization of motor acts in execution. Interestingly, in comparison to older children, they have a delayed ability to use this mechanism to infer others' intentions by observation. Finally, we found a significant negative association between the children's age and the activation of the MH muscle during the grasp-to-eat phase in the observation condition. We, tentatively, interpreted it as a sign of an immature control of motor acts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spaceflight presents significant challenges to the physiological state of living organisms. This can be due to the microgravity environment experienced during long-term space missions, resulting in alterations in muscle structure and function, such as atrophy. However, a comprehensive understanding of the adaptive mechanisms of biological systems is required to devise potential solutions and therapeutic approaches for adapting to spaceflight conditions. This review examines the current understanding of the challenges posed by spaceflight on physiological changes, alterations in metabolism, dysregulation of pathways and the suitability and advantages of using the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes to study the effects of spaceflight. Research has shown that changes in the gene and protein composition of nematodes significantly occur across various larval stages and rearing environments, including both microgravity and Earth gravity settings, often mirroring changes observed in astronauts. Additionally, the review explores significant insights into the fundamental metabolic changes associated with muscle atrophy and growth, which could lead to the development of diagnostic biomarkers and innovative techniques to prevent and counteract muscle atrophy. These insights not only advance our understanding of microgravity-induced muscle atrophy but also lay the groundwork for the development of targeted interventions to mitigate its effects in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observing the behavior of others can lead to false memories of self-expression –observation-inflation effect. Previous research has highlighted a significant reduction in memory errors when a specific action is executed by individuals from an external group. However, the impact of relationships among members within the same group on this type of memory error remains an unresolved question. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed to observe actions performed by both familiar and unfamiliar individuals. The observation-inflation effect was evident in both instances in memory tests conducted two weeks later. However, actions performed by familiar individuals were more likely to induce confusion regarding the identity of the action's subject in individual recollections. Experiment 2 utilized electroencephalographic oscillations in the Mu frequency range (8–13 Hz) over the sensorimotor cortex as an index of motor simulation. By comparing the power of Mu frequency during the observation of actions performed by familiar and unfamiliar individuals, the study found a decrease in Mu power when individuals observed actions of familiar individuals compared to those performed by unfamiliar individuals. This suggests that the actions of familiar individuals enhance the activity of mirror neurons in the individual's brain. These findings further strengthen our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the observation-inflation effect. Specifically, individuals exhibit a predisposition to engage in more profound simulations of actions performed by familiar individuals, which may be one of the prominent reasons for the heightened observation-inflation effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Video-feedback observational therapy (VOT) is an intensive rehabilitation technique based on movement repetition and visualization that has shown benefits for motor rehabilitation of the upper and lower limbs. Despite an increase in recent literature on the neurophysiological effects of VOT in the upper limb, there is little knowledge about the cortical effects of visual feedback therapies when applied to the lower limbs. The aim of our study was to better understand the neurophysiological effects of VOT. Thus, we identified and compared the EEG biomarkers of healthy subjects undergoing lower limb VOT during three tasks: passive observation, observation and motor imagery, observation and motor execution. Methods: We recruited 38 healthy volunteers and monitored their EEG activity while they performed a right ankle dorsiflexion task in the VOT. Three graded motor tasks associated with action observation were tested: action observation alone (O), motor imagery with action observation (OI), and motor execution synchronized with action observation (OM). The alpha and beta event-related desynchronization (ERD) and event-related synchronization (or beta rebound, ERS) rhythms were used as biomarkers of cortical activation and compared between conditions with a permutation test. Changes in connectivity during the task were computed with phase locking value (PLV). Results: During the task, in the alpha band, the ERD was comparable between O and OI activities across the precentral, central and parietal electrodes. OM involved the same regions but had greater ERD over the central electrodes. In the beta band, there was a gradation of ERD intensity in O, OI and OM over central electrodes. After the task, the ERS changes were weak during the O task but were strong during the OI and OM (Cz) tasks, with no differences between OI and OM. Conclusion: Alpha band ERD results demonstrated the recruitment of mirror neurons during lower limb VOT due to visual feedback. Beta band ERD reflects strong recruitment of the sensorimotor cortex evoked by motor imagery and action execution. These results also emphasize the need for an active motor task, either motor imagery or motor execution task during VOT, to elicit a post-task ERS, which is absent during passive observation. Trial Registration NCT05743647 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Action observation (AO) and motor imagery (MI) has emerged as promising tool for physiotherapy intervention in Parkinson's disease (PD). This narrative review summarizes why, how, and when applying AO and MI training in individual with PD. We report the neural underpinning of AO and MI and their effects on motor learning. We examine the characteristics and the current evidence regarding the effectiveness of physiotherapy interventions and we provide suggestions about their implementation with technologies. Neurophysiological data suggest a substantial correct activation of brain networks underlying AO and MI in people with PD, although the occurrence of compensatory mechanisms has been documented. Regarding the efficacy of training, in general evidence indicates that both these techniques improve mobility and functional activities in PD. However, these findings should be interpreted with caution due to variety of the study designs, training characteristics, and the modalities in which AO and MI were applied. Finally, results on long-term effects are still uncertain. Several elements should be considered to optimize the use of AO and MI in clinical setting, such as the selection of the task, the imagery or the video perspectives, the modalities of training. However, a comprehensive individual assessment, including motor and cognitive abilities, is essential to select which between AO and MI suite the best to each PD patients. Much unrealized potential exists for the use AO and MI training to provide personalized intervention aimed at fostering motor learning in both the clinic and home setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are inherently complex creatures, and this issue became even more complicated when they decided to construct social relationships. Research into human behavior is an interdisciplinary and multifaceted endeavor studied by various disciplines, such as psychology, economics, sociology, anthropology, and neurosciences. Today, with the cooperation of researchers in different fields, it is possible to link the cellular dynamic of neurons to brain function and human behavior. Cognitive science and neurosciences, along with other disciplines, can enrich our knowledge about mechanisms of social influence, which may assist policymakers in influencing public behaviors toward creating a better society. This review aims to describe previous research on social influence’s behavioral, cognitive, and neural basis and provide more understanding of human behavior in society. I review and evaluate the relevant literature from multiple databases of peer-reviewed journals, books, and conferences and hand-searching reference lists of relevant studies that consider conformity from psychological, economic, neurobiological, and neurochemical aspects. This paper has been divided into four parts. First, I start by defining and describing two kinds of social influences. The second section focuses on psychological and economic evidence of social influence. It will then explore the neurobiological and neurochemical approaches to studying social influence. Finally, the conclusion summarizes and highlights three points I believe social neuroscience as an interdisciplinary and vibrant field should consider for future developments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dosimetry in pre‐clinical FLASH studies is essential for understanding the beam delivery conditions that trigger the FLASH effect. Resolving the spatial and temporal characteristics of proton pencil beam scanning (PBS) irradiations with ultra‐high dose rates (UHDR) requires a detector with high spatial and temporal resolution. Purpose: To implement a novel camera‐based system for time‐resolved two‐dimensional (2D) monitoring and apply it in vivo during pre‐clinical proton PBS mouse irradiations. Methods: Time‐resolved 2D beam monitoring was performed with a scintillation imaging system consisting of a 1 mm thick transparent scintillating sheet, imaged by a CMOS camera. The sheet was placed in a water bath perpendicular to a horizontal PBS proton beam axis. The scintillation light was reflected through a system of mirrors and captured by the camera with 500 frames per second (fps) for UHDR and 4 fps for conventional dose rates. The raw images were background subtracted, geometrically transformed, flat field corrected, and spatially filtered. The system was used for 2D spot and field profile measurements and compared to radiochromic films. Furthermore, spot positions were measured for UHDR irradiations. The measured spot positions were compared to the planned positions and the relative instantaneous dose rate to equivalent fiber‐coupled point scintillator measurements. For in vivo application, the scintillating sheet was placed 1 cm upstream the right hind leg of non‐anaesthetized mice submerged in the water bath. The mouse leg and sheet were both placed in a 5 cm wide spread‐out Bragg peak formed from the mono‐energetic proton beam by a 2D range modulator. The mouse leg position within the field was identified for both conventional and FLASH irradiations. For the conventional irradiations, the mouse foot position was tracked throughout the beam delivery, which took place through repainting. For FLASH irradiations, the delivered spot positions and relative instantaneous dose rate were measured. Results: The pixel size was 0.1 mm for all measurements. The spot and field profiles measured with the scintillating sheet agreed with radiochromic films within 0.4 mm. The standard deviation between measured and planned spot positions was 0.26 mm and 0.35 mm in the horizontal and vertical direction, respectively. The measured relative instantaneous dose rate showed a linear relation with the fiber‐coupled scintillator measurements. For in vivo use, the leg position within the field varied between mice, and leg movement up to 3 mm was detected during the prolonged conventional irradiations. Conclusions: The scintillation imaging system allowed for monitoring of UHDR proton PBS delivery in vivo with 0.1 mm pixel size and 2 ms temporal resolution. The feasibility of instantaneous dose rate measurements was demonstrated, and the system was used for validation of the mouse leg position within the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The weakening of motor functions in individuals due to a stroke can impact daily life productivity, necessitating therapy or rehabilitation. One method for restoring the function of body parts, especially the upper limb affected by a stroke, is through mirror therapy on a bicycle. Mirror therapy provides visual stimulation to the brain, influencing the improvement of motor functions. To monitor the effectiveness and safety during therapy, a monitoring system is required to track progress and evaluate vital signs to prevent health issues arising from the exercise process. This research aims to design an integrated upper limb motor exercise system using a mirror therapy bicycle with a website to monitor the therapy process and evaluate the results. Observed parameters include heart rate, oxygen saturation, pedal rotations, and therapy duration. This is because the longer the duration and the more rotations of the static bicycle pedaled by post-stroke patients, the greater the likelihood of improving motor skills. Software reliability was tested for the website and data communication. The study involved 20 healthy subjects, analyzed statistically through descriptive statistics and normality tests using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov type. Then, data similarity was tested against a comparator using the Independent Sample T-Test. Heart rate (bpm) and oxygen saturation (SpO2%) data from the sensor were normally distributed with a p-value ≥ 0.05. MQTT demonstrated optimal performance at QoS 0 with a throughput value of 604.8 bits/s, delay of 3.4 ms, jitter of 2.152 ms, and no packet loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goal-directed actions are characterized by two main features: the content (i.e., the action goal) and the form, called vitality forms (VF) (i.e., how actions are executed). It is well established that both the action content and the capacity to understand the content of another's action are mediated by a network formed by a set of parietal and frontal brain areas. In contrast, the neural bases of action forms (e.g., gentle or rude actions) have not been characterized. However, there are now studies showing that the observation and execution of actions endowed with VF activate, in addition to the parieto-frontal network, the dorso-central insula (DCI). In the present study, we established--using dynamic causal modeling (DCM)--the direction of information flow during observation and execution of actions endowed with gentle and rude VF in the human brain. Based on previous fMRI studies, the selected nodes for the DCM comprised the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), the inferior parietal lobule (IPL), the premotor cortex (PM), and the DCI. Bayesian model comparison showed that, during action observation, two streams arose from pSTS: one toward IPL, concerning the action goal, and one toward DCI, concerning the action vitality forms. During action execution, two streams arose from PM: one toward IPL, concerning the action goal and one toward DCI concerning action vitality forms. This last finding opens an interesting question concerning the possibility to elicit VF in two distinct ways: cognitively (from PM to DCI) and affectively (from DCI to PM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphological markers for brain plasticity are still lacking and their findings are challenged by the extreme variability of cortical brain surface. Trying to overcome the “correspondence problem,” we applied a landmark‐free method (the generalized procrustes surface analysis (GPSA)) for investigating the shape variation of cortical surface in a group of 40 healthy volunteers (i.e., the practice group) subjected to daily motor training known as Quadrato motor training (QMT). QMT is a sensorimotor walking meditation that aims at balancing body, cognition, and emotion. More specifically, QMT requires coordination and attention and consists of moving in one of three possible directions on corners of a 50 × 50 cm2. Brain magnetic resonance images (MRIs) of practice group (acquired at baseline, as well as after 6 and 12 weeks of QMT), were 3D reconstructed and here compared with brain MRIs of six more volunteers never practicing the QMT (naïve group). Cortical regions mostly affected by morphological variations were visualized on a 3D average color‐scaled brain surface indicating from higher (red) to lower (blue) levels of variation. Cortical regions interested in most of the shape variations were as follows: (1) the supplementary motor cortex; (2) the inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercolaris) and the anterior insula; (3) the visual cortex; (4) the inferior parietal lobule (supramarginal gyrus and angular gyrus). Our results show that surface morphometric analysis (i.e., GPSA) can be applied to assess brain neuroplasticity processes, such as those stimulated by QMT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor issues are frequently observed accompanying core deficits in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Impaired motor behavior has also been linked to cognitive and social abnormalities, and problems with predictive ability have been suggested to play an important, possibly shared, part across all these domains. Brain imaging of sensory-motor behavior is a promising method for characterizing the neurobiological foundation for this proposed key trait. The present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) developmental study, involving children/youth with ASD, typically developing (TD) children/youth, and neurotypical adults, will investigate brain activations during execution and observation of a visually guided, goal-directed sequential (two-step) manual task. Neural processing related to both execution and observation of the task, as well as activation patterns during the preparation stage before execution/observation will be investigated. Main regions of interest include frontoparietal and occipitotemporal cortical areas, the human mirror neuron system (MNS), and the cerebellum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advancements in dermatological artificial intelligence research require high-quality and comprehensive datasets that mirror real-world clinical scenarios. We introduce a collection of 18,946 dermoscopic images spanning from 2010 to 2016, collated at the Hospital Clínic in Barcelona, Spain. The BCN20000 dataset aims to address the problem of unconstrained classification of dermoscopic images of skin cancer, including lesions in hard-to-diagnose locations such as those found in nails and mucosa, large lesions which do not fit in the aperture of the dermoscopy device, and hypo-pigmented lesions. Our dataset covers eight key diagnostic categories in dermoscopy, providing a diverse range of lesions for artificial intelligence model training. Furthermore, a ninth out-of-distribution (OOD) class is also present on the test set, comprised of lesions which could not be distinctively classified as any of the others. By providing a comprehensive collection of varied images, BCN20000 helps bridge the gap between the training data for machine learning models and the day-to-day practice of medical practitioners. Additionally, we present a set of baseline classifiers based on state-of-the-art neural networks, which can be extended by other researchers for further experimentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to understand how Mirror Neuron System (MNS) and Mentalizing Network (MZN) interact with each other. EEG data was collected during a photo judgment task with pictures of actions or facial expressions. Participants (N = 30, 63% women) were asked to either identify how the shown action/expression was being performed (MNS) or what the goal or intention behind the action was (MZN). Data were analyzed using microstate analysis, source localization and Event-Related Potentials. When comparing the action types, we found early divergence between the brain states of MNS and MZN when comparing the same action type. There was temporal alignment between the start and end time of the induced microstates, among the same action type. Between different action types, the timing was slightly shifted. Temporally, there was a greater overlap between the timing of the states between networks within the same action type as compared to within networks across action types. The MNS and MZN are acting in parallel rather then subsequently and possibly feed into each other. Furthermore, the MNS and MZN do not specifically react to one action type over the other, but their activity is influenced by the action type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study confidently evaluates views on taqlid al-faith in classical theological literature, asserting that they can be assessed in light of neurobiology and modern learning theories. It is evident that a considerable number of believers base their understanding of faith in taqlid (mimicry). However, whether most people meet the criteria for achieving Tahqiq faith (research-based) remains uncertain. The criteria for achieving internalized faith are well-established and can be met with proper guidance and effort. This assertion is based on the perspectives of Muslim theologians on faith, which highlights the differences between taqlid and internalized faith. Taqlid faith is not based on reason. However, critical faith is based on reasoning and logical deductions, leading to the conclusion that Allah is the absolute creator of everything. It is important to note that while arguments based on reasoning and deduction alone may be insufficient to establish the existence of the divine in matters of faith, theological scholars assert that they are still a valuable tool in understanding and interpreting religious beliefs. Theological schools should reconsider their justification of the method of reasoning employed regarding the subject of internalized faith. Faith is not solely a cognitive process but also encompasses behavioral and emotional dimensions. This framework asserts that theological approaches that reduce faith in a cognitive process must be evaluated in the light of modern science's mirror neurons and learning theories. Mirror neurons, discovered by a group of scientists from the University of Parma, Italy, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti, are a crucial biological mechanism that significantly influences the way people relate to each other, empathy, and learning processes. The text clearly and confidently explains how mirror neurons in the brain respond to various experiential factors and how they affect cognitive function. It asserts that the theory of mirror neurons is grounded in human physiology and emphasizes that imitation involves both actional similarities and cognitive processes. The cognitive process in the theory of mirror neurons, whereby individuals believe in observing others, implies the use of reasoning. Additionally, the connection between imitation and social learning theories was examined, highlighting its crucial role in the development of genuine beliefs. Learning theories emphasize the interaction between individuals and their environment, highlighting the significance of social interactions such as modeling and imitation. Theological schools should reconsider their justification of the method of reasoning employed regarding the subject of the Tahqiqi (research-based) faith. Faith is not solely a cognitive process but also encompasses behavioral and emotional dimensions. This framework asserts that theological approaches that reduce faith in a cognitive process must be evaluated in the light of modern science's mirror neurons and learning theories. Mirror neurons, discovered by a group of scientists from the University of Parma, Italy, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti, are a crucial biological mechanism that significantly influences the way people relate to each other, empathy, and learning processes. The text clearly and confidently explains how mirror neurons in the brain respond to various experiential factors and how they affect cognitive function. It asserts that the theory of mirror neurons is grounded in human physiology and emphasizes that imitation involves both actional similarities and cognitive processes. The cognitive process in the theory of mirror neurons, whereby individuals believe in observing others, implies the use of reasoning. Additionally, the connection between imitation and social learning theories was examined, highlighting its crucial role in the development of genuine beliefs. Learning theories emphasize the interaction between individuals and their environment, highlighting the significance of social interactions such as modeling and imitation. Bandura, one of the main proponents of this theory, argues that people learn by observing the behavior of others around them. He also emphasizes that learning is not limited to imitating observed behaviors but that cognitive processes also play an important role. Therefore, he argues that the process of learning by imitation depends not only on external factors but also on the internal thought processes of the individual. This study discusses the effects of imitation on human behavior and its relationship with cognitive processes within the framework of social learning theory. It has been argued that the process of modelling the behavior of the person being imitated overlaps with the process of inference and deduction underlying social cognitive theories. In addition, the interplay between the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of faith is emphasized, and it is stated that the Prophet taught faith using live models, symbolic models, and verbal instructions in the Prophet's message, and that these teachings were observed and imitated by the Companions. The article is unique in its field as it is a multidisciplinary study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper addresses the problem of imaginative resistance in science, that is, why and under what circumstances imagination sometimes resists certain scenarios. In the first part, the paper presents and discusses two accounts concerning the problem and relevant for the main thesis of this study. The first position is that of Gendler (Journal of Philosophy 97:55–81, 2000), (Gendler, in: Nichols (ed) The Architecture of the Imagination: New essays on pretence, possibility and fiction, Oxford University Press, New York, 2006a), (Gendler & Liao, in: Gibson, Carroll (eds) The routledge companion to philosophy of literature, Routledge, New York, 2016), according to which imaginative resistance mainly concerns evaluative scenarios, presenting deviant moral attitudes. The second account examined is that of Kim et al. (in: Cova, Réhault (eds) Advances in experimental philosophy of aesthetics, Bloomsbury, London, 2018), who insisted on the link between imaginative resistance on the one hand and counterfactual and counterdescriptive scenarios on the other. In the light of both theories, this paper discusses the importance of addressing the problem of imaginative resistance in the scientific enterprise in the light of some mechanisms of embodied simulation, based on the activity of mirror neurons and investigated within the framework of the Embodied Simulation Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article, published in the journal Cell Discovery, explores the role of leptin receptor neurons in the ventral premammillary nucleus (PMv) in modulating emotion-induced insomnia. The study found that exposure to emotional stimuli, such as urine or TMT (a component of fox odor), significantly delayed non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep onset and increased wakefulness in mice. The researchers also discovered that PMvLepR neurons were activated by emotional stimuli and that their activation led to prolonged wakefulness, mimicking insomnia-like behavior. Inhibition of PMvLepR neurons abolished the increase in sleep latency and wakefulness following emotional stimuli. These findings suggest that PMvLepR neurons may be an important therapeutic target for managing emotion-induced insomnia. [Extracted from the article]

This article describes an empirical study that explored the cognitive and emotional effects of teaching through shadow theater as compared to traditional storytelling of the same texts and songs in children on the autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The rationale is based on broken mirror theory anchored in research on mirror neurons. Fifty-seven elementary school students diagnosed with ASD aged 7 to 13 participated in classes where they were taught eight familiar children's stories and songs in a shadow theater format or in a traditional storytelling format. Half heard the story first and then watched the shadow theater and vice-versa. The activities were videoed and transcribed for analysis on the Pupils' Functioning in Lessons on the Autism Scale (PFLAS) that measures cognitive, emotional, behavioral and learning responses. Performance on the PFLAS was higher for the shadow theater activity than for the storytelling activity on all indices. Shadow theater may provide a more conducive setting for the development of the acquisition of social and behavioral skills than traditional storytelling, possibly by tapping mirror neurons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inspired by the role of mirror neurons and the importance of predictions in joint action, a novel decision-making structure is proposed, designed and tested for both individual and dyadic action. The structure comprises models representing individual decision policies, policy integration layer(s), and a negotiation layer. The latter is introduced to prevent and resolve conflicts among individuals through internal simulation rather than via explicit agent-agent communication. As the main modelling tool, Dynamic Neural Fields (DNFs) were chosen. Data was captured from human-human experiments with a decision-making task performed by either one or two participants. The task involves choosing and picking blocks one by one from seven wooden blocks to create an alpha/numeric character on a 7-segment. The task is designed to be as generic as possible. Recorded hand and blocks movements were used for developing DNF-based models by optimising parameters using a genetic algorithm. Results show that decision policies can be modelled and integrated with acceptable accuracy for individual performances. In the dyadic experiment, using only individual models without the negotiation layer, the model failed to resolve conflicts. However, with the implementation of a negotiation layer, this problem could be overcome. The proposed decision-making structure based on DNFs is developed and tested for a simple pick-and-place task. However, the main primitive underlying action of this task, pick-and-place, is indeed part of many more complex tasks people perform in their day-to-day life. Paired with the possibility to gradually evolve the architecture by adding new policies on demand, the architecture provides a general framework for modelling decision-making in joint action tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Mirror neurons are brain cells that engage when an individual performs an action and then observes another person completing the same action. These neurons are supposed to help us grasp others' emotions and intentions by mimicking their experiences. This has led to the theory that mirror neurons influence empathy, or the ability to share and understand the experiences of others. The article investigates the role of mirror neurons in empathy, specifically their potential contribution to emotional resonance, perspective-taking, their relevance in autism spectrum disorder and other clinical implications. Aim of the study The aim of this comprehensive review is to provide an overview of how mirror neurones contribute to the development and expression of empathy in humans, with a focus on their role in autism spectrum disorder. The objective of this research is to clarify the role of mirror neurons in social cognition and gain a better understanding of the neurological foundation for empathy. Materials and methods Scientific articles from the Pubmed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases were analysed. The goal of this study was to choose recent articles that most adequately encompassed the problems under consideration. The search was conducted out using the following keylords: mirror neurones, empathy and autism spectrum disorder. Summary Mirror neurones appear to play an important part in empathy, as evidenced by neural activity patterns during emotion identification. While they are not the single source of empathy or the only trigger, they are definitely present. Conflicting evidence limits our understanding of their exact impact, and more credible studies need to be conducted. However, current research reveals that mirror neurones have a measurable, although limited, impact on empathy.

The evidence base for the effectiveness of art therapy continues to grow, even as a mechanistic understanding of how art therapy works remains limited. One promising avenue for increasing our understanding of how and why art therapy works is through the lens of neuroscience. A neuroscience-based approach to art therapy provides opportunities for improving understanding of the neural processes that underlie the complex interaction between perception, cognition, emotion and behavior that play out in the art therapy process. Understanding how therapeutic change occurs can result in improved treatment and better outcomes for clients. However, it can be tricky to connect art therapy and psychological theory directly to neural responses. The purposes of this perspective are to provide an overview of the current evidence and limits of neurobiological concepts of neuroplasticity, mirror systems, and interoception as applied to art therapy practice, and to provide updated information about outdated concepts that are still actively used in clinical practice. Critical analysis and understanding of the current scientific knowledge base can then be used to guide art therapy practice and support the development of hypothesis-based research to determine the primary mechanisms that drive the observed effects of art therapy interventions.

Broadly congruent mirror neurons, responding to any grasp movement, and strictly congruent mirror neurons, responding only to specific grasp movements, have been reported in single-cell studies with primates. Delineating grasp properties in humans is essential to understand the human mirror neuron system with implications for behavior and social cognition. We analyzed electrocorticography data from a natural reach-and-grasp movement observation and delayed imitation task with 3 different natural grasp types of everyday objects. We focused on the classification of grasp types from high-frequency broadband mirror activation patterns found in classic mirror system areas, including sensorimotor, supplementary motor, inferior frontal, and parietal cortices. Classification of grasp types was successful during movement observation and execution intervals but not during movement retention. Our grasp type classification from combined and single mirror electrodes provides evidence for grasp-congruent activity in the human mirror neuron system potentially arising from strictly congruent mirror neurons.

Primates can recognize objects despite 3D geometric variations such as in-depth rotations. The computational mechanisms that give rise to such invariances are yet to be fully understood. A curious case of partial invariance occurs in the macaque face-patch AL and in fully connected layers of deep convolutional networks in which neurons respond similarly to mirror symmetric views (e.g. left and right profiles). Why does this tuning develop? Here, we propose a simple learning-driven explanation for mirror-symmetric viewpoint tuning. We show that mirror symmetric viewpoint tuning for faces emerges in the fully connected layers of convolutional deep neural networks trained on object recognition tasks, even when the training dataset does not include faces. First, using 3D objects rendered from multiple views as test stimuli, we demonstrate that mirror-symmetric viewpoint tuning in convolutional neural network models is not unique to faces: it emerges for multiple object categories with bilateral symmetry. Second, we show why this invariance emerges in the models. Learning to discriminate among bilaterally symmetric object categories induces reflection-equivariant intermediate representations. AL-like mirror-symmetric tuning is achieved when such equivariant responses are spatially pooled by downstream units with sufficiently large receptive fields. These results explain how mirror-symmetric viewpoint tuning can emerge in neural networks, providing a theory of how they might emerge in the primate brain. Our theory predicts that mirror-symmetric viewpoint tuning can emerge as a consequence of exposure to bilaterally symmetric objects beyond the category of faces, and that it can generalize beyond previously experienced object categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High speed side-view videos of sliding drops enable researchers to investigate drop dynamics and surface properties. However, understanding the physics of sliding requires knowledge of the drop width. A front-view perspective of the drop is necessary. In particular, the drop's width is a crucial parameter owing to its association with the friction force. Incorporating extra cameras or mirrors to monitor changes in the width of drops from a front-view perspective is cumbersome and limits the viewing area. This limitation impedes a comprehensive analysis of sliding drops, especially when they interact with surface defects. Our study explores the use of various regression and multivariate sequence analysis (MSA) models to estimate the drop width at a solid surface solely from side-view videos. This approach eliminates the need to incorporate additional equipment into the experimental setup. In addition, it ensures an unlimited viewing area of sliding drops. The Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) model with a 20 sliding window size has the best performance with the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) of 67 µm. Within the spectrum of drop widths in our dataset, ranging from 1.6 to 4.4 mm, this RMSE indicates that we can predict the width of sliding drops with an error of 2.4%. Furthermore, the applied LSTM model provides a drop width across the whole sliding length of 5 cm, previously unattainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurons responding during action execution and action observation were discovered in the ventral premotor cortex 3 decades ago. However, the visual features that drive the responses of action observation/execution neurons (AOENs) have not been revealed at present. We investigated the neural responses of AOENs in ventral premotor area F5c of 4 macaques during the observation of action videos and crucial control stimuli. The large majority of AOENs showed highly phasic responses during the action videos, with a preference for the moment that the hand made contact with the object. They also responded to an abstract shape moving towards but not interacting with an object, even when the shape moved on a scrambled background, implying that most AOENs in F5c do not require the perception of causality or a meaningful action. Additionally, the majority of AOENs responded to static frames of the videos. Our findings show that very elementary stimuli, even without a grasping context, are sufficient to drive responses in F5c AOENs. Neuronal activity during action execution and action observation is ubiquitous in the primate brain but it is not clear which are the minimal visual features that drive this activity. This study shows that neurons active during action observation and action execution respond to surprisingly simple visual stimuli which do not contain any meaningful action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]