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Assessment of ecosystem responses to coupled human and environmental impacts is increasingly acknowledged as an important research of environmental informatics. However, current ecological and environmental models are not effective for capturing the coupled influences due to prevalent approaches of separating human interferences from environmental changes, common uses of time-averaged or cumulative data, and the lack of efficient methods integrating environmental observations with socioeconomic statistics that are tabulated over different spatial units. In this paper, we presented an integrated modeling framework to tackle these limitations. We developed data-assimilation techniques to integrate ecological and climate data with socioeconomic statistics into a coherent dataset on the basis of conforming spatial units. These data were used in panel regressions to estimate responses of grassland productivity to coupled climate factors (seven) and socioeconomic indicators (ten) across 37 counties for nine 16-day growing periods each year from 2000 to 2010. We also advanced the analysis of climate impacts by allowing for quadratic rather than linear impacts and by incorporating lagged time effects for the dependent variable. The case study was conducted in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China. Our findings provided strong evidence that the grassland productivity responded significantly to variations in both climate factors and socioeconomic variables; displayed significant seasonal, annual, and regional variation; and revealed cumulative influences from prior climate conditions and extreme climate fluctuations. The assimilation of climatic, ecological and socioeconomic data into a big-data set and the application of multi-spatial-and-temporal panel regression model were much more comprehensive than prior studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A significantly negative interannual relationship is identified between the ground surface temperature (GTS) over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and the rainfall over northwestern China and western Mongolia (NWC-WM) through analyzing the Chinese weather station data, GPCP precipitation, and ERA-Interim reanalysis in July during 1980-2012. This relationship is verified by the model sensitivity experiments carried out by using RegCM4.1 during 1982-2011. The positive/negative GTS forcing of three different magnitudes is added in two key regions over the TP in RegCM4.1. One of the key regions covers the central and eastern TP (denoted as TPC). The other covers the northern and north slope of the TP (denoted as TPN). The model results suggest that when the GTS anomalies in either of the two key regions are negative (positive), the rainfall anomalies over NWC-WM are positive (negative), which is consistent with observations. Furthermore, rainfall anomalies over NWC-WM are more sensitive to the GTS anomalies over the TPN region than those over the southern TP. The model results also reveal that the negative (positive) GTS anomalies over region TPN mainly cause the decrease (increase) of the latent heat release related to rainfall (surface sensible heat) and descent (ascent) over the TPN region but ascent (descent) to the north of the TP between 40° and 50° N. In addition, the specific humidity between 40° and 50° N is increased (decreased). Therefore, the increase (decrease) in specific humidity and the ascent (descent) between 40° and 50° N cause the increase (decrease) in the rainfall over NWC-WM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground thermal conditions in marginal permafrost in Mongolia were assessed using ground temperatures measured year‐round at 69 borehole sites. Permafrost is continuous in northern Mongolia and exists as sporadic/isolated patches in the south. Ground temperatures are strongly controlled by local environmental factors, such as topographic depressions that concentrate cold air during winter, ice‐rich strata that prevent penetration of sensible heat, and tree cover that reduces incident solar radiation. Permafrost temperatures are typically between −1 and 0°C; colder permafrost (< −2°C) occurs in the northern extent of continuous permafrost and at high elevations in the sporadic/isolated permafrost zones. Relict permafrost, which is thermally disconnected from seasonal air temperature fluctuations, is present near the latitudinal and elevational limits of perennially frozen ground. Cold and thermally responsive permafrost is dominant in the continuous and discontinuous zones, while warm and thermally unresponsive permafrost is dominant in the sporadic and isolated zones. Overall, the climate‐driven permafrost in the colder regions is stable, while the ecosystem‐driven permafrost in the warmer regions is degrading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shift in precipitation regime could greatly alter plant and microbial activity, and thus the contemporary and future ecosystem dynamics in grasslands. We investigated how changes in snow depth affect plants, microbes and their relationships after 10 consecutive years of snow treatments in different steppes. We selected 8 snow fences along a mean annual precipitation (MAP) gradient from 225 to 375 mm in Inner Mongolia. For each snow fence, study plots were set up at 7 transects with different levels of snow depth. We found that ecosystem properties, including soil moisture, the biomass and nitrogen (N) pools of microbes and plants, the fungi: bacteria ratio and the grass: forb ratio, increased with increasing snow depth at the drier sites with lower MAP, but not at the wetter sites with higher MAP. At any given site, the sensitivity of these ecosystem properties to changes in snow depth was determined by the slopes of these variables against snow depth. The results showed that the sensitivity of these ecosystem properties to changes in snow depth decreased linearly with increase in MAP levels. In addition, we also found that increased snow depth shifted the relationship between microbial and plant biomass from positive to negative. Our work reveals the importance of snow water in regulating plant and microbial processes in temperate steppes, especially under lower MAP conditions. The greater plant and microbial biomass and the shift of community toward greater fungi: bacteria and grass: forb ratio imply that increased snowmelt input alleviated water limitation in temperate steppes and altered plant and microbial communities. Our study helps to better predict that how changes in winter precipitation could affect the biomass and composition of plants and soil microbes in grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Well-preserved leaves conforming to the fossil genus Glossopteris are found in the Permian deposits of southeastern Gobi, Khatan-Bulag locality, Mongolia. These leaves have many features in common with Glossopteris communis Feistmantel described from India. The locality Khatan-Bulag belongs to Sulinkheer nappe-fold tectonic megazone. The Glossopteris sp. cf. G. communis specimens from the Khatan-Bulag suggest that there was effective migration gateway between Gondwana and southern regions of Asia in the mid-Permian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the impacts of climate change in IMP by investigating vegetation responses drought in multiple timescales. Methods used included the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), by annual maximum Pearson correlation (Rmax) and the corresponding month (Rmonth) of drought. Results showed that: (1) It is necessary to zone IMP when analyzing the vegetation responses to drought. (2) Rmax is significantly positive correlation in IMP, indicating that vegetation was largely influenced by drought; the most seriously affected areas are in the north-eastern part of typical steppe, south-western parts of steppe desert and southern part of desert steppe, while light seriously are distributed in the south-eastern of typical steppe and forest steppe. (3) Vegetation in typical steppe, steppe desert and desert steppe are sensitive to shorter time-scales of droughts, while in the forest, forest steppe and sand desert, vegetation shows a close relationship with the longer drought time-scales. (4) The effects of drought related climate extremes can also contribute to Rmax and Rmonth between SPEI and NDVI. Vegetation in forest and sand desert areas, have lower sensitivity to drought under the effect of climate extremes. Adaptation measures, such as building drought resilience vegetation types, applying biochar and monitoring and forecasting drought, must be timely and effectively initiated, especially, in the typical steppe, steppe desert and desert steppe in IMP since vegetation in these four areas is affected seriously, once drought occur. The results from this study may provide useful information about appropriate adaptation and mitigation strategies against the inverse effects of drought on vegetation, and even alleviate the losses caused by drought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study of drought trends in Mongolia, focusing on its association with economic, social and environmental change. It suggests that future drought predictions in Mongolia are unlikely to exceed the past two millennia, despite the potential direct effects of increased carbon dioxide (CO2) on plant water use efficiency and projected global warming.

The Zhunsujihua porphyry molybdenum deposit, located in northern Inner Mongolia of China that belongs to Central-Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), is the only Mo deposit formed in the late Carboniferous in this area so far. Its mineralization is mainly restricted to the Zhunsujihua granitoid intrusions, which are composed of the main granodiorite (GD) and crosscutting, virtually coeval minor syn-ore leucogranite (LG) and diorite porphyry (DP) dykes. LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb dating yields crystallization ages of 300.0 ± 2.0, 299.3 ± 2.0, and 299.0 ± 2.6 Ma for the GD, LG, and DP, respectively. The major and trace element lithogeochemical data show that the GD and LG are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous, high-K calc-alkaline series with I-type granite characteristics, strongly oxidized, with low concentrations of Ba, Nb, Sr, P, and Ti and elevated K and Rb contents, indicating typical arc magmatic features. The LG is a product derived by extensive fractional crystallization of a parental magma similar to the GD as evident from the lower Eu/Eu*, Nb/Ta, Zr/Hf, and TZr. The moderately altered DP exhibits high concentrations of K, Rb, Cs, LREE, Y, and low Sr/Y, with a positive εNd (300 Ma), which indicates a mantle or juvenile source associated with an arc setting. The Sr–Nd–Hf isotope data show low ISr (0.70406–0.70461) and moderate εNd (300 Ma) (−0.9 to 1.5) for the GD and LG, and relatively high εHf (300 Ma) values (−3.6 to +11.2) for the GD, suggesting the magma mainly originated from the juvenile lower crust that was derived from depleted mantle, with a minor component of ancient continental crust. Lead isotope data have characteristics of a lower crust source with minor contamination by upper crustal material. Combined with previous research, the Zhunsujihua granitoid intrusions developed in an intracontinental volcanic arc (Uliastai) associated with northward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean plate during late Carboniferous to early Permian; this suggests that the subduction of Paleo Asian Ocean may have continued to late Carboniferous, and the Hengenshan basin is probably closed during the early Permian. Fractional crystallization is the main evolutionary process of the felsic magma, which has played an important role in the Mo mineralization. The coeval DP may have provided additional heat for the extended evolution of the crystallizing felsic magma chamber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Few studies have been done to investigate the impact of mowing on N2O emissions and the abundance of functional microbial genes, especially in sloping landscapes. This study aims to explore the impact of mowing on key N2O-producing processes under different topographical conditions in a semi-arid grassland.Materials and methods: Soil samples were collected from a semiarid grassland ecosystem in Xilingol region, Inner Mongolia, where long-term management practices including non-mowing and mowing in flat and sloping blocks were conducted. We then determined (1) soil moisture, total carbon (TC) and nitrogen (TN), and mineral N (NH4+-N and NO3−-N) content; (2) the potential N2O emission from nitrification (NN2O) and from denitrification (DN2O) and potential N2 emission (DN2); and (3) the gene abundance of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), the narG (nitrate reductase) gene, and nosZ (nitrous oxide reductase) gene.Results and discussion: Soil moisture and potential N2O emission from nitrification and denitrification were significantly lower in sloping than in flat conditions, whereas the TC, TN, NH4+-N, NO3−-N content, gene abundance of AOA, AOB, narG, and nosZ showed no difference between flat and sloping conditions. Mowing significantly decreased the gene abundance of AOA, AOB, narG in both flat and sloping areas, and significantly decreased potential N2O emissions, especially in sloping areas.Conclusions: The potential N2O emission was significantly lower on sloping than flat grassland. Mowing significantly decreased the potential N2O emissions, especially on sloping grassland. Our results suggest that topographical conditions should be incorporated into methods for estimating N2O emission and land management practices in semiarid grassland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evapotranspiration ( ET) plays an important role in exchange of water budget and carbon cycles over the Inner Mongolia autonomous region of China (IMARC). However, the spatial and decadal variations in terrestrial ET and drought over the IMARC in the past was calculated by only using sparse meteorological point-based data which remain quite uncertain. In this study, by combining satellite and meteorology datasets, a satellite-based semi-empirical Penman ET (SEMI-PM) algorithm is used to estimate regional ET and evaporative wet index (EWI) calculated by the ratio of ET and potential ET ( PET) over the IMARC. Validation result shows that the square of the correlation coefficients $$(R^{2})$$ for the four sites varies from 0.45 to 0.84 and the root-mean-square error (RMSE) is $$0.78$$ mm. We found that the ET has decreased on an average of 4.8 mm per decade ( $$p=0.10$$ ) over the entire IMARC during 1982-2009 and the EWI has decreased on an average of 1.1% per decade ( $$p=0.08$$ ) during the study period. Importantly, the patterns of monthly EWI anomalies have a good spatial and temporal correlation with the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) anomalies from 1982 to 2009, indicating EWI can be used to monitor regional surface drought with high spatial resolution. In high-latitude ecosystems of northeast region of the IMARC, both air temperature $$(T_{a})$$ and incident solar radiation $$(R_{s})$$ are the most important parameters in determining ET. However, in semiarid and arid areas of the central and southwest regions of the IMARC, both relative humidity (RH) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) are the most important factors controlling annual variation of ET. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Winter air pollution in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia is among the worst in the world. The health impacts of policy decisions affecting air pollution exposures in Ulaanbaatar were modeled and evaluated under business as usual and two more-strict alternative emissions pathways through 2024. Previous studies have relied on either outdoor or indoor concentrations to assesses the health risks of air pollution, but the burden is really a function of total exposure. This study combined projections of indoor and outdoor concentrations of PM2.5 with population time-activity estimates to develop trajectories of total age-specific PM2.5 exposure for the Ulaanbaatar population. Indoor PM2.5 contributions from secondhand tobacco smoke (SHS) were estimated in order to fill out total exposures, and changes in population and background disease were modeled. The health impacts were derived using integrated exposure-response curves from the Global Burden of Disease Study. Results: Annual average population-weighted PM2.5 exposures at baseline (2014) were estimated at 59 μg/m3. These were dominated by exposures occurring indoors, influenced considerably by infiltrated outdoor pollution. Under current control policies, exposures increased slightly to 60 μg/m3 by 2024; under moderate emissions reductions and under a switch to clean technologies, exposures were reduced from baseline levels by 45% and 80%, respectively. The moderate improvement pathway decreased per capita annual disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and death burdens by approximately 40%. A switch to clean fuels decreased per capita annual DALY and death burdens by about 85% by 2024 with the relative SHS contribution increasing substantially. Conclusion: This study demonstrates a way to combine estimated changes in total exposure, background disease and population levels, and exposure-response functions to project the health impacts of alternative policy pathways. The resulting burden analysis highlights the need for aggressive action, including the elimination of residential coal burning and the reduction of current smoking rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal runoff generation in a headwater (~100 km) of the mountainous Sugnugr Basin, situated within the discontinuous permafrost zone of northern Mongolia, was investigated. The role of the active layer and the effects of a recent wildfire on runoff generation were elucidated. On the catchment scale, stormflow events were investigated by streamflow hydrograph analysis and stable isotope investigations. Hydrological response parameters indicate increasing recession periods and delayed flow fractions during summer as active layer thickness increases. Isotopic signature revealed a high ratio of meltwater in river baseflow in early summer and a gradual decline until the beginning of September. During a stormflow event in early summer, a high fraction of event water was determined by two-component hydrograph separation. At a taiga-vegetated hillslope, subsurface flow was observed following precipitation events after a relative increase in upper soil volumetric water content (VWC) of 0.05 m m, demonstrating the retarding characteristics of the organic surface layer. Depending on active layer depth, subsurface flow predominantly occurred in the organic surface layer in early summer and subsequently subsided into the underlying mineral layer as soils thawed. After a wildfire, the water retention capacity of the organic surface layer diminished, as was reflected by a VWC of 0.01 m m. Here, stormflow water temperatures indicated quickflow in the mineral layer above a degenerated frost table. The results of the study suggest that wildfires increase stormflow runoff while baseflow declines. Hence, the problem of water shortages in downstream areas during dry weather conditions is exacerbated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted in Elsen tasarkhai, an arid region in Mongolia, to investigate the physiological response of Populus sibirica to different irrigation regimes and to suggest optimal irrigation intervals for successful reforestation in Mongolia. Two-year-old P. sibirica seedlings were planted, and three different irrigation regimes (well-watered (WW), irrigation every 2 days; moderate drought (MD), irrigation every 5 days; severe drought (SD), irrigation every 7 days) were applied. Although the survival rate was unaffected by the applied water deficit intensity, the relative growth rate was significantly reduced in SD in accordance with a decline in carbon assimilation. Although the total chlorophyll content also decreased as the water deficit increased, the chlorophyll b (Chl b) and total carotenoid (Car T) levels increased to dissipate the excess energy. Increased quantum efficiencies in the SD condition were caused by the enlargement of the reaction center (RC) antenne, indicating increased of excess energy dissipation. Therefore, P. sibirica showed resistance to a certain degree of water deficit intensity (MD and SD). The irrigation regime of SD appeared to be adequate for P. sibirica based on survival rate and physiological traits. These results might enlighten the development of effective irrigation systems in arid area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-correlations between inter-annual summer rainfall time series (June to August: JJA) for arid Mongolia and global sea surface temperatures (GSST) were calculated for prediction purposes. Prediction of summer rainfall for four vegetation zones. Desert Steppe (DS), Steppe (ST), Forest Steppe (FS), and High Mountain (HM) using GSSTs for time lags of 5, 6, and 7 months prior to JJA rainfall was evaluated. Mongolian summer rainfall is correlated with global SSTs. In particular, the summer rainfall of FS and HM displayed high and statistically significant correlations with SST in specific parts of the oceans. SST dipoles (pairs of positively and negatively correlated areas) were identified, and correlation for time series of the SST differences betwjeen SST dipoles (positive - negative) with the summer rainfall time series was larger than the original correlations. To predict the summer rainfall from SST, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was used. Time series of the SST difference that represents the strength of the dipole were used as input to the ANN model, and Mongolian summer rainfall was predicted 5, 6, and 7 months ahead in time. The predicted summer rainfall compared reasonably well with the observed rainfall in the four different vegetation zones. This implies that the model can be used to predict summer rainfall for the four main Mongolian vegetation zones with good accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In northern Mongolia, at the southern boundary of the Siberian boreal forest belt, the distribution of steppe and forest is generally linked to climate and topography, making this region highly sensible to climate change. Detailed investigations on the limiting parameters of forest and steppe occurrence in different ecozones provide necessary information for environmental modelling and scenarios of potential landscape change. In this study, remote sensing data and gridded climate data were analyzed in order to identify distribution patterns of forest and steppe in Mongolia and to detect driving ecological factors of forest occurrence and vulnerability against environmental change. With respect to anomalies in extreme years we integrated the climate and land cover data of a 15 year period from 1999-2013. Forest distribution and vegetation vitality derived from the normalized differentiated vegetation index (NDVI) were investigated for the three ecozones with boreal forest present in Mongolia (taiga, subtaiga, and forest-steppe). In addition to the entire ecozone areas, the analysis focused on different subunits of forest and non-forested areas at the upper and lower treeline, which represent ecological borderlines of site conditions. The total cover of boreal forest in Mongolia was estimated at 73 818 km2. The upper treeline generally increases from 1800 m above sea level (a.s.l.) in the Northeast to 2700 m a.s.l. in the South. The lower treeline locally emerges at 1000 m a.s.l. in the northern taiga and is rising southward to 2500 m a.s.l. The latitudinal trend of both treelines turns into a longitudinal trend in the east of the mountains ranges due to more aridity caused by rain-shadow effects. Less vital trees were identified by NDVI at both, the upper and lower treeline in relation to the respective ecozone. The mean growing season temperature (MGST) of 7.9-8.9 °C and a minimum of 6 °C was found to be a limiting parameter at the upper treeline but negligible for the lower treeline and the total ecozones. The minimum of the mean annual precipitation (MAP) of 230-290 mm yr-1 is an important limiting factor at the lower treeline but at the upper treeline in the forest-steppe ecotone, too. In general, NDVI and MAP are lower in grassland, and MGST is higher compared to the forests in the same ecozone. An exception occurs at the upper treeline of the subtaiga and taiga, where the alpine vegetation is represented by meadow mixed with shrubs. Comparing the NDVI with climate data shows that increasing precipitation and higher temperatures generally lead to higher greenness in all ecological subunits. While the MGST is positively correlated with the MAP of the total ecozones of the forest-steppe, this correlation turns negative in the taiga ecozone. The subtaiga represents an ecological transition zone of approximately 300 mm yr-1 precipitation, which occurs independently from the MGST. Nevertheless, higher temperatures lead to higher vegetation vitality in terms of NDVI values. Climate change leads to a spatial relocation of tree communities, treelines and ecozones, thus an interpretation of future tree vitality and biomass trends directly from the recent relationships between NDVI and climate parameters is difficult. While climate plays a major role for vegetation and treeline distribution in Mongolia, the disappearing permafrost needs to be accounted for as a limiting factor for tree growth when modeling future trends of climate warming and human forest disturbance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the impact of climate change on the Tuul River flow in a semiarid region in Mongolia using statistical methods and the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The authors found that the precipitation showed cyclic variability (three dry and two wet periods) at inter- and multi-decadal scales throughout the study period (1945-2012). Both river flow and actual evapotranspiration (ET) showed a positive relationship with precipitation. In addition, the river flow further decreased due to increased water loss in percentage via actual ET even though the amount of actual ET decreased during dry periods. A significant increase in air temperature by 1.3 to 1.8 °C was recorded during latest dry period (1996-2012). Increase in temperature resulted in an added stressor, where water loss in percentage via actual ET increased more and resulted in an additional decrease in the river flow. This study concluded that precipitation has a stronger influence on the Tuul River flow than temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is recognized as a cold and dry period that marks the maximum southward extension of the Scandinavian Inlands in Europe. In Asia, the ice sheet did not expand from the Arctic into Siberia, yet the LGM had a significant impact at high latitudes and elevations, as well as in regions with a continental climate. How much these changes affected the human occupation of Siberia and Mongolia is still a matter of debate and various models dealing with continuity, discontinuity, demographic movement and adaptation have been put forth. The present paper is a critical review of available empirical data regarding the impact of the LGM on landscapes and human settlements in Mongolia. This review underscores the caveats in the data collected and further analyses are proposed to test several basic hypotheses. The results obtained suggest that during Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 3 and MIS 2, there were hiatuses in the human occupation of Mongolia. These gaps are potentially linked with significant changes in climate. It is recognized that one of the main breaks in the cultural sequence is associated with the LGM, suggesting that Mongolia experienced periods of depopulation associated with this dramatic climatic change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on study of the Middle Paleozoic (Hercynian) structures of the Central Asian Fold Belt located in Southwest Mongolia, the problem of the sources of juvenile crust growth registered in the Pb isotope composition of postaccretional granitoids is considered. Our study shows that the Pb isotope system of Late Paleozoic granitoids from the Hercynides of the Central Asian Fold Belt provides evidence for the juvenile nature of the continental crust in this region. The evolution of the Pb isotope composition in the Hercynides of Mongolia corresponds to the model parameter μ = 9.25, according to the Stacey-Kramers twostage model. The juvenile source of the Hercynian crust should be characterized by a lower μ value. In addition, according to the Stacey-Kramers two-stage model, the Th/U value in this crust is 3.58. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous frost mounds exist on the meander belt and alluvial fan around Arsain Gol River in Darhad basin, northern Mongolia, at the southern fringe of the north-eastern Eurasian permafrost zone. In this environment, abundant water supply and inter-permafrost taliks may allow the development of artesian pressure that leads to groundwater upwelling. The aim of this study was to determine the formation chronology of pingos in this region. The Arsain pingo was drilled to a depth of 35 m to determine the stratigraphy, and data were collected on ground-ice stable isotopic composition, electrical resistivity, ground temperature, and radiocarbon dating and interpreted in conjunction with the chronology of paleo-lake retreat in the basin. A 10 m thick ice core sandwiched between fine-grained lacustrine sediments was identified by drilling and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). Stable isotope values of ice core samples indicated Rayleigh-type isotope fractionation during the freezing of liquid water. Consequently, closed-system freezing of artesian groundwater appears to be the driving mechanism of pingo formation. Near-surface, segregated ground ice formed from the open-system freezing of meteoric water, concurrent with pingo growth. The lake coverage was extensive until about 10,000 years before present (yr bp), and the growth of the Arsain pingo began after 4500 yr bp, when the paleo-lake was completely drained. The pingo is not presently growing because of a limited groundwater supply to feed the ice core. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Vendian (Ediacaran) beds of the Zavkhan Basin, in the upper part of the Tsagaanolom Formation (<632 ± 14 Ma), yielded a new 'Zavkhan' association of algae, microfossils, and problematic organisms, which is established in the series of alternating chert-carbonate shale with phosphorite interbeds. This association is distinct in the predomination of large (250 μm and over) sphaeromorphic microfossils of the genera Tasmanites, Archaeooides, and Leiosphaeridia, whereas acanthomorph acritarchs are represented by rarely found Cavaspina sp. and Tanarium sp. Multicellular algae included fragments of encrusting or foliate thalli with pseudoparenchymatous structure of polygonal cells characteristic of Rhodophyta algae ( Thallophycoides sp.), and cordlike thalli of Vendotaenid algae Tyrasotaenia podolica. These layers of siltstone contain imprints of the problematic Vendian macrofossil Beltanelliformis brunsae. In their stratigraphic position, chemostratigraphic data, and fossil assemblage, the 'Zavkhan' association can be assigned to the Upper Vendian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of the present study is to evaluate geochemical transformation of soil cover in the territory of Erdenet (Mongolia) and to assess the environmental risk associated with soil cover contamination. The objectives of the present study included: (1) the determination of heavy metals (HMs) and metalloids contents in surface horizons of background and urban soils and the assessment of geochemical transformation of the city's soil cover; (2) the identification of elements' associations and patterns of their spatial distribution in the soil cover of the city; (3) the assessment of environmental hazard, related to contamination of soils with complexes of HMs and metalloids. Materials and methods: Soil-geochemical survey was conducted by the authors in the summer periods of 2010 and 2011. In total, 225 samples, including 32 backgrounds, were collected. Bulk contents of HMs and metalloids in soil samples were analyzed by mass-spectral method with inductively coupled plasma at All-Russian Research Institute of Mineral Raw Materials (Moscow) using Elan-6100 and Optima-4300 devices (Perkin Elmer, USA). Results and discussion: Mo, Cu, and Se appeared to be the priority pollutants nearly in all land-use zones. The maximum accumulation of Mo, Cu, Se, As, Sb, and W is restricted to the industrial area where total pollution index of soils (Zc) equals 74.8. Three technogenic associations of elements, derived mainly from petrochemical features of Erdenet ore field and characterized by similar spatial distribution within the city, are identified. Environmental assessment of surface soil horizon geochemistry in Erdenet showed that 1/5 of its area has dangerous and extremely dangerous levels of soil pollution. Conclusions: Experience of the environmental-geochemical assessment of soil cover in the impact zone of mining enterprises could be useful for other fields of the non-ferrous metals with high lithological-geochemical heterogeneity of the territory. It suggests the need of accounting for the geological diversity and specific features of metallogeny of an area. Geochemical indices local enrichment factor/local depletion factor should be calculated against the individual background values for each soil-forming rock. Such approach allows more accurate assessment of the degree of technogenic geochemical transformation of soils and the environmental hazard of pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions How does plant productivity and community composition in the mountain steppe of northern Mongolia respond to increased precipitation? Do these changes differ with the timing of precipitation? Location Mountain steppe at ecotone between steppe and taiga, Dalbay Valley, Lake Hövsgöl International Long Term Ecological Research Site ( ILTER), northern Mongolia (51°01.405′ N 100°45.600′ E). Methods We experimentally applied water, representing a 25% increase in growing season precipitation, to plots at the drier end of a topographic moisture gradient in mountain steppe vegetation. In one treatment, supplemental water was applied weekly for four growing seasons. A second treatment started in year 2, in which three times the weekly supplement of water was applied once every 3 wk for three growing seasons. Vascular plant species presence and percentage cover were used to assess water treatment effects on forb and graminoid composition. Plant species biomass and percentage cover in year 4 was used to determine treatment effects on total productivity, and on the abundances of legumes, non-leguminous forbs and graminoids, separately. Lichen, litter and root biomass, plant available N, P and K, and seedling demography were also examined in year 4. Results Weekly watering changed the relative abundances of forbs and increased the total abundance of legumes and non-leguminous forbs measured either as percentage cover or biomass. The 3-wk watering treatment did not induce the same changes in forb composition or abundance of functional groups but produced less compositional change in graminoids compared to controls. Neither treatment increased total productivity. Three-week watering increased plant available P and decreased litter. Seedling emergence, survival and size increased with one or both watering treatments. Conclusion In mountain steppe, precipitation increases will produce immediate changes in composition and abundance of forbs, including legumes, but not in graminoids or total productivity. The steppe is more responsive to regular incremental increases in precipitation than to less frequent, larger storms whose effect would be timing-dependent within the short, temperature-limited growing season. Longer term investigations need to be conducted to explore if further lagged responses to water addition occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are limited studies that focus on greywater treatment and reuse options, particularly in nomadic societies with unique cultural and climatic conditions. Studies relating to household greywater treatment in nomadic-cultured societies are limited. This study aims to address this gap by examining a case with a high concentration of chemical components in the greywater (e.g. where chemical oxygen demand ranged between 35 and 70,032 mg/L). Specifically, an upgraded greenhouse greywater treatment unit (GH-GWTU) was designed and constructed during the summer of 2013 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, in order to assess the technical feasibility, and up-scaling capability, of the system at the community level. Chemical and biological test results indicated that most parameters (e.g. PO 4 3 − , NO 2 − , NH 4 + ) had a high removal rate of up to 98%. Moreover, the greenhouse may extend the treatment period up to 8 months. This study has shown that GH-GWTU is a potential technology that can significantly reduce the chemicals and biological agents in greywater in Mongolian Ger contexts which may reduce the greywater-borne hazards and vulnerability in the area. It can be replicable both at the household and community scale according to resources available for system operation and maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the wide extension of the country and to the shortness of the ice-free season, the inlandwater crustacean fauna of Mongolia is, to date, incompletely known. However, based on the available literature, Mongolian inland waters appear to be characterised by a high biodiversity, including some taxa still waiting to be described. Novel data on the branchiopod, copepod, and ostracod crustaceans from central Mongolian steppe, from the "Tuul" and "Umard goviin guveet-Khalhiin" hydrographical basins, are presented herein. While large branchiopods, some anomopod families, and copepods are well-represented in the collected samples, ostracods are rare, and the anomopod family Chydoridae is apparently absent in the sampled water bodies. The anomopod Macrothrix dadayi and the cyclopoid Microcyclops afghanicus are here reported for the first time for the Mongolian fauna. Furthermore, two branchiopods (i.e. Moina sp. and Artemia sp.), three copepods (i.e. Diacyclops sp., Arctodiaptomus cf. alpinus, and Arctodiaptomus cf. wierzejskii), and one ostracod taxon (i.e. Heterocypris sp.), were not identified to species level and therefore deserve further study. The main ecological determinants of species distribution in the study area were examined using canonical multivariate analysis, which explained around 40% of total variation of the species similarity matrix; the main environmental drivers of crustacean assemblages in the study area were elevation, water turbidity, water temperature and electrical conductivity. The ecological preferences of crustacean species in the area are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the residual layer has already been noted in the classical diurnal cycle of the atmospheric boundary layer, its effect on the development of the convective boundary layer has not been well studied. In this study, based on 3-hourly 20th century reanalysis data, the residual layer is considered as a common layer capping the convective boundary layer. It is identified daily by investigating the development of the convective boundary layer. The region of interest is bounded by (30°-60°N, 80°-120°E), where a residual layer deeper than 2000 m has been reported using radiosondes. The lapse rate and wind shear within the residual layer are compared with the surface sensible heat flux by investigating their climatological means, interannual variations and daily variations. The lapse rate of the residual layer and the convective boundary layer depth correspond well in their seasonal variations and climatological mean patterns. On the interannual scale, the correlation coefficient between their regional averaged (40°-50°N, 90°-110°E) variations is higher than that between the surface sensible heat flux and convective boundary layer depth. On the daily scale, the correlation between the lapse rate and the convective boundary layer depth in most months is still statistically significant during 1970-2012. Therefore, we suggest that the existence of a deep neutral residual layer is crucial to the formation of a deep convective boundary layer near the Mongolian regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The winter of 2009/2010 induced a mass loss of livestock known as dzud in Mongolia. We examine spatial heterogeneity in this livestock loss in a western Mongolian province using a semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interviews, meteorological station data, and two datasets derived from satellite imagery. We identify marked local variability in the impact of winter 2009/2010 demonstrated by a striking difference in livestock mortality between three Altai mountain districts and three Gobi desert districts. We explain this pattern with reference to site-specific circumstances. We ascertain a counter-intuitive pattern of milder winters with less snow in Mountain districts when compared to Desert districts, a contrast that was particularly acute in the winter of 2009/2010 which was uncommonly long and hard, with particularly deep and widespread snow cover in the Desert, but unusually mild in the Mountains. Examination of possible drivers of dzud vulnerability at the household and community levels-wealth and herder experience-found virtually no influence on livestock losses, although a large majority of herder households were characterised by a general lack of alternative income opportunities. The severity of conditions undermined many Desert herders' coping and adaptive strategies, including communal pooling, although those who managed to move their herds in response to the 2009/2010 dzud suffered markedly smaller livestock losses. Limited government capacity, partly influenced by remoteness, further increased vulnerability in the Desert districts where the deep snow restricted access to dzud relief assistance. Implications for hazard management and governance are discussed, as are recent policy initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses some practical steps to allow effective conservation of highly mobile ungulate populations in Mongolia's Gobi-Steppe Ecosystem (GSE). Topics discussed include regional planning on the scale of the migrations as the only way of preserving the ecological process of migration, fence removal to enable khulan access to large parts of their former range and the need for the implementation of linear infrastructure to follow a mitigation hierarchy of avoid, minimize and restore.

Increasing large-scale and rampant small-scale mining activity in Mongolia is raising fears about the possibility of regional environmental pollution. To characterise the level of groundwater pollution related to large- and small-scale underground resource development in the Mongolian plateau, we analysed 10 groundwater and 3 surface water samples collected from three areas: the Oyu Tolgoi mining area (n = 3), the Tavan Tolgoi mining area (n = 9) and an abandoned small-scale gold-mining site in the suburban of Ulaanbaatar (re = 1). The samples were collected between 29 August and 5 September 2012. Measurement parameters included pH; electrical conductivity; dissolved organic carbon; dissolved nitrogen; and the concentrations of major ions and trace elements. Principal component analyses, Piper diagrams and enrichment factor analyses were applied to a set of hydrochemical data. Water samples were analysed to identify components that may adversely affect the regional environment and human health. Analytical measurements showed that the studied sites were highly affected by fossil salt water and trace elements derived from anthropogenic activity. We found that groundwater samples from the Oyu Tolgoi area were more polluted than those from the Tavan Tolgoi area. Because wells in the pasture area adjacent to the mining sites supply drinking water for livestock and nomads, it is especially important to monitor these wells for NO3-, As and Se, for which the World Health Organisation has established drinking-water guidelines. The concentrations of NO3-, As and Se in wells may be used as indicators to evaluate the human and livestock health risks related to mining activity in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in soil in some industrial towns (Ulaanbaatar, Suhbaatar, Erdenet, Darhan, Tsetserleg, Hovd, Ulaangom, Altay, Bayanhongor, Arvayheer, Saynshand, Choybalsan) and in background and rural areas of Mongolia. The average sum of all investigated PCB congeners in soil of Mongolia comes to 7.4 ng/g dry weight (DW) and varies from 0.53 ng/g DW till 114 ng/g DW. PCB levels in soil from towns are significantly higher than those in soil from background and rural areas. The PCB homological composition in soil sampled in highly-PCB-polluted sites is similar to the PCB homological pattern in Sovol and Aroclor 1254. Significant correlation between soil organic carbon and low chlorinated PCB both for towns and background sites was found. Significant differences in PCB means in soil in different natural zones were found. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Turgen Mountains lie in northwestern Mongolia, roughly 80 km south of the Russian border. The area was visited in 1910 by a Royal Geographical Society expedition led by Douglas Carruthers. The party undertook an extensive survey of the range and also documented the extent of the glaciers with photographs. One hundred years later, in summer 2010, a US- Mongolian expedition retraced portions of the 1910 expedition. Camera locations were matched to the historical photographs and repeated photographs taken. In addition, the termini of the two main glacial lobes were surveyed by GPS. Analyses of field data, repeated photographs from 1910 and 2010, topographic maps from 1970, and satellite imagery from 1992 and 2010 were used to describe the changes in the glacial system. The results suggest that while the snow and ice volume on the summits appears to be intact, lower elevation glaciers show significant recession and ablation. From 1910 to 2010, West Turgen Glacier receded by c. 600 m and down-wasted by c. 70 m. This study successively demonstrates the utility of using historic expedition documents to extend the modern record of glacial change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tuul River flows through the Ulaanbaatar basin of Mongolia and is the main source of water for the capital city, Ulaanbaatar. The Tuul catchment can be divided into three parts around Ulaanbaatar (upper, middle, and lower), according to the extent of urbanization. Sixteen surface water and groundwater samples were collected to evaluate present-day water quality and 34 stream sediment samples taken to examine their geochemical composition in relation to provenance and to assess the impact of urban activity on heavy metal accumulation. Groundwater quality in the upper and central water sources was adequate, but high concentrations of NO3- were found in the lower water source. Heavy metal concentrations in the sediments are evaluated by comparison with average upper continental crust (UCC) values, coupled with ecological risk assessment by reference to sediment quality guidelines (SQG). The results show average abundances of potentially toxic metals such as As, Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, and V are higher in the middle part (within the city) than in the upper and lower parts. However, all three parts show depletion in some chalcophile and high field strength elements (Cu,Ni, Cr, Sr, Nb, Zr, Th, Sc) relative to UCC, indicating that the river sediments were derived from a highly felsic crustal source. The assessment using SQG shows As and Cr are present in levels that cause adverse aquatic biological effects. Although concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cu, and Ni are generally below their respective threshold effect levels, in the middle reaches, values increase and border on the probable effect level. This suggests significant anthropogenic contamination in the urban areas, increasing values above a naturally low regional background. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temperatures in semiarid Mongolia have rapidly risen over the past few decades, and increases in drought, urban development, mining, and agriculture have intensified demands on limited water resources. Understanding long-term streamflow variation is critical for Mongolia, particularly if alterations in streamflow are being considered and because of the potential negative impacts of drought on the animal agriculture sector. Here, we present a temporally and spatially improved streamflow reconstruction for the Kherlen River. We have added 11 new records in comparison with two in the original 2001 reconstruction. This new reconstruction extends from 1630 to 2007 and places the most recent droughts in a multicentennial perspective. We find that variations in streamflow have been much greater in the past than in the original study. There was higher variability in the mid to late 1700s, ranging from severe and extended drought conditions from 1723 to 1739 and again in 1768-1778 to two decadal length episodes of very wet conditions in the mid 1700s and late 1700s. Reduced amplitude is seen in the mid-1800s, and several pluvial events are reconstructed for the 1900s. Although recent droughts are severe and disturbing economic and ecological systems in Mongolia and it appears that eastern Mongolia is drying, the drying trend since the late 1900s might in fact be accentuated by a change from a particularly wet era in Mongolia. The recent drought might be a return to more characteristic hydroclimatic conditions of the past four centuries in Mongolia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presented are the results of studies of the component composition of atmospheric aerosols in Mongolia for the period of 2005-2010. It is demonstrated that the local emissions mostly affect the composition of aerosols in industrial cities (Ulan Bator and Sükhbaatar), whereas the distant transport of pollutants and the wind regime of the area, in particular, the dust storms affect in small towns with the undeveloped industry (Baruun-Urt and Sainshand). Revealed is the dependence of the composition and concentration of suspended particles on the meteorological conditions in the research area. High concentrations of aerosols were observed on the days with strong winds and air masses transport from the deserts and industrial areas of China. Low concentrations of ions were observed during periods of calm weather and in case of the air masses transport from the territories of Russia and Kazakhstan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In comparison with their impacts elsewhere, humans have trodden relatively lightly on Mongolia's ecosystems and there is an opportunity to conserve globally threatened wild species and maintain natural ecological processes in parallel with modern economic development, but only if co-ordinated action is taken soon. Mongolia has a low population density (ca 1.68 per km2) and the pastoral lifestyle is suited to the landscape. Yet humans have degraded grasslands, damaged forests, depleted wildlife populations and polluted and overused water. Rapid social and political changes have resulted in far-reaching impacts on Mongolia's fragile ecosystems. The country is a major recipient of both foreign aid and foreign direct investment, and it is important to guide economic development with the best ecological judgment available before permanent damage is done. Government has a responsibility to establish a legal, policy and fiscal framework that provides incentives for sustainable use of the land compatible with the survival of Mongolia's wild species and ecosystems. A regional biodiversity conservation strategy for the Mongolian Altai examined direct and indirect threats and laid out a programme of actions under 12 major objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two robust precipitation reconstructions were conducted by combining tree-ring chronologies, dryness/wetness indices from historical documents, and climate data from the global grid. It was found that the recurrent drought history of a region can help us understand the variability of precipitation. Several dry/wet periods during the past four centuries and potential cycles of precipitation variation were determined. Furthermore, the reconstructions are not only consistent well with each other in North-central China, but also in good agreement with variations of precipitation in northeastern Mongolia, the Longxi area in Gangsu Province and the Dulan area of Qinghai Province, and the snow accumulation of the Guliya glacier. These synchronous variations indicate that it is valuable to study various climate records, find common information and determine the driving force of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predictions of climate change and its impacts are highly uncertain at regional and local levels. Downscaled models often operate with a too coarse scale and look at standard parameters that may be irrelevant to resource-dependent people. This article argues that a more robust analysis and prediction of climate change at local levels can be inferred from the integration of local people's observation of change with meteorological records and models. The example proposed here is the analysis of climate change in the desert-steppe region of Mongolia. While regional models and local analyses agree that Mongolia has become warmer, predictions either ignore or are contradictory about the changes in precipitations and sand storms. The Mongolian pastoral nomads on the other hand identify longer and more intense droughts and sand storms as the most important recent climatic changes, relevant to their livelihoods. In addition, they record detailed changes in the precipitations regime. Thus, they are unequivocal that rains have become patchy –‘silk embroidery rains’ – (forcing pastoralists to move farther and more frequently), more intense (thus less effective due to runoff) and that summer rains are delayed (reducing the growing season). The observations of the pastoralists can only partly be investigated in light of meteorological records due to different parameters observed by the two systems. Nevertheless, additional evidence derived from the analysis of meteorological records resonates with the perceptions of the herders and adds elements for further investigation. This combined evidence suggests that due to a southern shift of the East Asian Monsoon, rains in southern Mongolia rely on re-circulated local moisture, leading to large-scale droughts and in turn more frequent sand storms. The analysis provided herein shows that combining the two knowledge systems (local people's observations and climatology) holds the potential to provide more reliant and relevant investigations of climate change and allow for better planned adaptations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The objective of this study was to detect the fluoride level in the drinking water and the urine of habitants aged 16–55 years living in Inner Mongolia China. Furthermore, fluoride concentration of the brick tea infusion samples which were drunk by Mongolia herdsmen in everyday life living in SumuErga village of Ejin Horo Banner, Inner Mongolia China was also determined. A total of 117 participants (61 female and 56 male) were recruited from two counties for a cross-sectional study on health effects of chronic fluoride exposure from drinking water and drinking brick tea infusion. The fluoride concentration in drinking water, urine and brick tea infusion samples were determined using fluoride ion selective electrode method obtained from the Ministry of Health of the People''s Republic of China. The average fluoride concentration in drinking water samples was 0.32±0.01mg/L at AretengXire town of Ejin Horo Banner, 0.70±0.19mg/L at SumuErga village of Ejin Horo Banner, and 2.68±1.15mg/L at ZhalaiNuoer district of Manzhouli city. The average fluoride concentration in brick tea infusion samples which collected from Mongolia herdsmen at SumuErga village of Ejin Horo Banner was 1.81±1.09mg/L. The average urinary fluoride concentration at AretengXire town of Ejin Horo Banner was 0.59±0.48mg/L, at SumuErga village of Ejin Horo Banner was 1.45±0.93mg/L and at ZhalaiNuoer district of Manzhouli city was 3.06±1.53mg/L. The higher fluoride levels in the urine of participants may be associated to higher fluoride in drinking water at ZhalaiNuoer of Manzhouli city. However, drinking brick tea infusions with higher fluoride may be the cause of the higher fluoride contents in the Mongolia herdsmen''s urine. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

BACKGROUND: Arsenic exposure is associated with human cancer. Telomerase-containing human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) can extend telomeres of chromosomes, delay senescence, and promote cell proliferation leading to tumorigenesis. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of As on hTERT mRNA expression in humans and in vitro. METHOD: A total of 324 Inner Mongolia residents who have been exposed to As via drinking water participated in this study. Water and toenail samples were collected and analyzed for As. Blood samples were quantified for hTERT mRNA expression using real-time polymerase chain reaction. The hTERT mRNA levels were linked to water and nail As concentrations and skin hyperkeratosis. Human epidermal keratinocytes were treated with arsenite to assess effects on cell viability and hTERT expression in vitro. RESULTS: hTERT mRNA expression levels were significantly associated with As concentrations of water (p < 0.0001) and nails (p = 0.002) and also associated with severity of skin hyperkeratosis (p < 0.05), adjusting for age, sex, smoking, and pesticide use. Females showed a higher slope than males (females: 0.126, p = 0.0005; males: 0.079, p = 0.017). In addition to water and nail As concentrations, age (p < 0.0001) and pesticide use (p = 0.025) also showed significant associations with hTERT expression. The hTERT expression levels decreased with age. Tobacco smoking did not affect hTERT expression (p = 0.13). hTERT expression was significantly correlated with OGG1 and ERCC1 expression. The in vitro results also showed a dose--response relationship between arsenite concentrations and hTERT expression and reached the peak at 1 µM. CONCLUSIONS: hTERT expression was associated with As exposure in vivo and in vitro. The increased hTERT expression may be a cellular response to genomic insults by As and may also indicate that As may function as a tumor promoter in carcinogenesis in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Widespread degradation of Mongolian grasslands by overgrazing is of global concern. The objective of this study was to reveal the effects of grazing on pollination as an example of interaction biodiversity in Mongolian grasslands. We established three plots according to grazing intensity on the eastern steppe of Mongolia. In each plot, we recorded the numbers of insect-pollinated plants and observed the foraging behavior of pollinators in June and August. The richness of insect-pollinated species was high and these species were most abundant in lightly grazed plots, and formed complex relations with diverse pollinators. But, frequency of flower visitation and pollination index were greater in heavily grazed plots. All pollination properties were poorest in intermediately grazed plots. These results suggest that the forb-biased foraging of sheep and goats reduces the floral diversity of insect-pollinated species, and consequently reduces pollinators in the intermediately grazed plots. In the heavily grazed plots, only limited ruderal species could survive under heavy cattle grazing, and such simple vegetation formed unbalanced but strong bonds with pollinators. Removal simulation showed that the mutual network was more fragile with respect to the extinction of certain species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents an examination into the nomadic pastoral practices of Mongolia in relation to the hazards of land degradation and desertification through overgrazing. An overview of the economic shift to capitalism causing the increase in local area pressures is provided. Satellite imaging research and thematic mapping of vegetation changes are analyzed, suggesting an increase in environmental pressure and a decrease in soil quality in densely populated areas. Calls for intervention strategies are given, pointing out the need to address local pastoral decision-making paradigms.

The article looks at urban transition and sustainability in Mongolia. The steady urbanization of a previously nomadic population is placing financial and administrative stresses on the country. The challenges of ensuring sustainable development include managing a balance between the use and conservation of natural resources, enhancing investments that will improve the living of the poor, and strengthening the democratic system. The article discusses the market transition, migration, the capital city Ulaanbaatar, rural and urban poverty, the education system, water supply, sewage and sanitation provision, solid waste management, land degradation, air pollution, and development plans. INSETS: GER AREAS: ADAPTING TRADITIONAL DWELLINGS TO AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT;IMPROVING LIVING STANDARDS IN MONGOLIA, 1998-2003.

El artículo discurre sobre el impacto de los cambios climáticos en las sociedades trashumantes. Los autores comentan sobre las poblaciones más vulnerables en Omán y en Mongolia y describen la relación entre el medio ambiente y los trashumantes. También se considera el rol de los gobiernos de cada país en las políticas ambientales.

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including Mongolia's economic development, its environmental conditions, and its mineral industries.