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Abstract Background Today Iraq suffers from severe shortages of food, medicine, clean water and adequate sanitation. Malnutrition and communicable diseases are major factors in the rising morbidity and mortality rates. However, supplies and equipment are insufficient or outmoded, and public health training is outdated. The Universities have been unable to help because under-funding and isolation from their professional colleagues has limited their effectiveness. Methods To revitalize public health education, we describe a partnership between a US education consortium and the University of Mosul that will be carried out in the next several years. The plan is based on "three R's": Recovery from the past damage due to war and neglect; Retooling of key public health faculty to remedy the years of isolation and restriction of activity; and Reestablishment of the University as a resource for the its constituents, for the community and for other educational institutions. In all these activities, Iraqi minorities, especially women, will participate and contribute. Conclusion The work to repair the public health educational infrastructure has just begun. When completed, it will represent a small but necessary step in restoring normalcy to the people of Mosul, and of Iraq.

How early human foragers impacted insular forests is a topic with implications across multiple disciplines, including resource management. Paradoxically, terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene impacts of foraging communities have been characterized as both extreme-as in debates over human-driven faunal extinctions-and minimal compared to later landscape transformations by farmers and herders. We investigated how rainforest hunter-gatherers managed resources in montane New Guinea and present some of the earliest documentation of Late Pleistocene through mid-Holocene exploitation of cassowaries (Aves: Casuariidae). Worldwide, most insular ratites were extirpated by the Late Holocene, following human arrivals, including elephant birds of Madagascar (Aepyornithidae) and moa of Aotearoa/New Zealand (Dinornithiformes)-icons of anthropogenic island devastation. Cassowaries are exceptional, however, with populations persisting in New Guinea and Australia. Little is known of past human exploitation and what factors contributed to their survival. We present a method for inferring past human interaction with mega-avifauna via analysis of microstructural features of archaeological eggshell. We then contextualize cassowary hunting and egg harvesting by montane foragers and discuss the implications of human exploitation. Our data suggest cassowary egg harvesting may have been more common than the harvesting of adults. Furthermore, our analysis of cassowary eggshell microstructural variation reveals a distinct pattern of harvesting eggs in late ontogenetic stages. Harvesting eggs in later stages of embryonic growth may reflect human dietary preferences and foraging seasonality, but the observed pattern also supports the possibility that-as early as the Late Pleistocene-people were collecting eggs in order to hatch and rear cassowary chicks., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest.

Avian diversification has been influenced by global climate change, plate tectonic movements, and mass extinction events. However, the impact of these factors on the diversification of the hyperdiverse perching birds (passerines) is unclear because family level relationships are unresolved and the timing of splitting events among lineages is uncertain. We analyzed DNA data from 4,060 nuclear loci and 137 passerine families using concatenation and coalescent approaches to infer a comprehensive phylogenetic hypothesis that clarifies relationships among all passerine families. Then, we calibrated this phylogeny using 13 fossils to examine the effects of different events in Earth history on the timing and rate of passerine diversification. Our analyses reconcile passerine diversification with the fossil and geological records; suggest that passerines originated on the Australian landmass ∼47 Ma; and show that subsequent dispersal and diversification of passerines was affected by a number of climatological and geological events, such as Oligocene glaciation and inundation of the New Zealand landmass. Although passerine diversification rates fluctuated throughout the Cenozoic, we find no link between the rate of passerine diversification and Cenozoic global temperature, and our analyses show that the increases in passerine diversification rate we observe are disconnected from the colonization of new continents. Taken together, these results suggest more complex mechanisms than temperature change or ecological opportunity have controlled macroscale patterns of passerine speciation., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2019 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.)

The rapid disruption of tropical forests probably imperils global biodiversity more than any other contemporary phenomenon. With deforestation advancing quickly, protected areas are increasingly becoming final refuges for threatened species and natural ecosystem processes. However, many protected areas in the tropics are themselves vulnerable to human encroachment and other environmental stresses. As pressures mount, it is vital to know whether existing reserves can sustain their biodiversity. A critical constraint in addressing this question has been that data describing a broad array of biodiversity groups have been unavailable for a sufficiently large and representative sample of reserves. Here we present a uniquely comprehensive data set on changes over the past 20 to 30 years in 31 functional groups of species and 21 potential drivers of environmental change, for 60 protected areas stratified across the world’s major tropical regions. Our analysis reveals great variation in reserve ‘health’: about half of all reserves have been effective or performed passably, but the rest are experiencing an erosion of biodiversity that is often alarmingly widespread taxonomically and functionally. Habitat disruption, hunting and forest-product exploitation were the strongest predictors of declining reserve health. Crucially, environmental changes immediately outside reserves seemed nearly as important as those inside in determining their ecological fate, with changes inside reserves strongly mirroring those occurring around them. These findings suggest that tropical protected areas are often intimately linked ecologically to their surrounding habitats, and that a failure to stem broad-scale loss and degradation of such habitats could sharply increase the likelihood of serious biodiversity declines.

New Guinea is a biologically diverse island, with a unique geologic history and topography that has likely played a role in the evolution of species. Few island-wide studies, however, have examined the phylogeographic history of lowland species. The objective of this study was to examine patterns of phylogeographic variation of a common and widespread New Guinean bird species (Colluricincla megarhyncha). Specifically, we test the mechanisms hypothesized to cause geographic and genetic variation (e.g., vicariance, isolation by distance and founder-effect with dispersal). To accomplish this, we surveyed three regions of the mitochondrial genome and a nuclear intron and assessed differences among 23 of the 30 described subspecies from throughout their range. We found support for eight highly divergent lineages within C. megarhyncha. Genetic lineages were found within continuous lowland habitat or on smaller islands, but all individuals within clades were not necessarily structured by predicted biogeographic barriers. There was some evidence of isolation by distance and potential founder-effects. Mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence among lineages was at a level often observed among different species or even genera of birds (5-11%), suggesting lineages within regions have been isolated for long periods of time. When topographical barriers were associated with divergence patterns, the estimated divergence date for the clade coincided with the estimated time of barrier formation. We also found that dispersal distance and range size are positively correlated across lineages. Evidence from this research suggests that different phylogeographic mechanisms concurrently structure lineages of C. megarhyncha and are not mutually exclusive. These lineages are a result of evolutionary forces acting at different temporal and spatial scales concordant with New Guinea's geological history.

Many antidepressant drugs interact with sigma receptors and accumulating evidence suggests that these proteins mediate antidepressant-like effects in animals and humans. sigma Receptors are localized in brain regions affected in depression, further strengthening the hypothesis that they represent logical drug development targets. In this study, two novel sigma receptor agonists (UMB23, UMB82) were evaluated for antidepressant-like activity in mice. First, radioligand binding studies confirmed that the novel compounds had preferential affinity for sigma receptors. Second, the forced swim test, a well established animal model for screening potential antidepressant drugs, showed that both compounds dose-dependently reduced immobility time. The sigma receptor antagonist BD1047 attenuated the antidepressant-like effects of UMB23 and UMB82. Third, locomotor activity suggested that the effects of UMB23 and UMB82 in the forced swim test were not due to non-specific motor activating effects. Together, the data provide further evidence that sigma receptor agonists represent a possible new class of antidepressant medication.

Earlier studies have demonstrated that antagonism of sigma1 receptors attenuates the convulsive, lethal, locomotor stimulatory and rewarding actions of cocaine in mice. In contrast, the contribution of sigma2 receptors is unclear because experimental tools to selectively target this subtype are unavailable. To begin addressing this need, we characterized UMB24 (1-(2-phenethyl)-4-(2-pyridyl)-piperazine) and (+/-)-SM 21 (3alpha-tropanyl-2-(4-chorophenoxy)butyrate) in receptor binding and behavioral studies. Receptor binding studies confirmed that UMB24 and (+/-)-SM 21 display preferential affinity for sigma2 over sigma1 receptors. In behavioral studies, pretreatment of Swiss Webster mice with UMB24 or (+/-)-SM 21 significantly attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions and locomotor activity, but not lethality. When administered alone, (+/-)-SM 21 produced no significant effects compared to control injections of saline, but UMB24 had locomotor depressant actions. Together, the data suggest that sigma2 receptor antagonists have the potential to attenuate some of the behavioral effects of cocaine, and further development of more selective, high affinity ligands are warranted.

Mononuclear phagocytes (MP; dendritic cells, monocytes, tissue macrophages, and microglia) maintain tissue homeostasis and provide a first line of defense against invading pathogens. In specific circumstances, MPs also induce inflammatory responses and as such affect disease onset and progression. Despite intensive research into MP biology, little is known of the functional and molecular properties of individual MP subtypes. Using a novel proteomics platform, unique protein patterns and protein identities were observed among populations of spleen and bone marrow macrophages and microglia. Cells were obtained from C57BL/6 mice and were cultivated in macrophage colony-stimulating factor. MP subtypes were indistinguishable by morphological or antigenic criteria. Protein profiling by Surface Enhanced Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight (SELDI-TOF) ProteinChip assays with weak cationic exchange chips showed unique MP spectral profiles. Corresponding protein fractions were recovered by high performance liquid chromatography and identified by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The results provide a unique means to distinguish microglia from other MP subtypes.

Cocaine interacts with sigma receptors at physiologically relevant concentrations. While earlier studies demonstrate that antagonism of sigma(1) receptors attenuates the behavioral actions of cocaine, the contribution of sigma(2) receptors is unclear. Therefore, in the present study, 3 alpha-tropanyl-2-(4-chlorophenoxy)butyrate ((+/-)-SM 21), a compound with high and preferential affinity for sigma(2) receptors, was tested for its ability to attenuate cocaine-induced behaviors. Pre-treatment of Swiss Webster mice with (+/-)-SM 21 significantly attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions and locomotor activity.

Relatively few studies have examined the evolution of the mutualism between endozoochorous plants and seed dispersers. Most seed dispersal studies are ecological and examine the role of fruit pulp in promoting seed dispersal. This interaction is often assumed to have originated due to selection stemming from seed dispersers. Here I suggest a "defence scenario" wherein fleshy fruits originated as mechanisms to defend seeds and secondarily became structures to promote seed dispersal. I suggest that frugivory followed from herbivores that specialized on consuming seed defensive tissues and that enhanced seed dispersal was initially a consequence of seed defence. The proposed defence scenario is not posited as an explanation for the sequence that led to all modern frugivores. However, it is suggested that seed predation was the initial source of selection that led to fleshy fruits; the necessary precursor to frugivory. Support is described from the fossil record and from modern structures and interactions. Testable predictions are made in hope that greater interest will be focused on the defensive role of fleshy fruit pulp both in modern interactions and historically.

The information submitted is knowledge accumulated over years of experience teaching dentists how to bill medical insurance. This is supplemented with a good number of personal expert witness testimonies in criminal and malpractice insurance cases. The objective is to prevent problems before they start with the prudent use of information. My experience in court testimony on these issues has shown me that there is an army of lawyers, insurance company fraud examiners, and dentists working for the aforementioned, just waiting for you to improperly use this method of insurance reimbursement. Use this only if you understand the nuances of what it is you are doing! For example, any procedure you bill to dental insurance using CDT-2 codes can be billed to medical insurance using medical insurance CPT-95 codes. The difference is that if the procedure is not a covered medical expense, it will not be paid by the medical insurance carrier. I strongly suggest that you do not fall into the trap of obfuscating these codes. There are a number of so-called insurance "gurus" teaching dentists how to write confusing and misleading operative reports so as to obtain reimbursement for procedures that normally would not be covered. I beseech you--please do not do it! The penalties are severe. You will experience a significant increase in payments from the medical insurance when procedures are submitted in the proper manner. More and more computerized dental insurance management programs are offering their clients the ability to automatically cross-code and submit dental/medical insurance claims. It is a recognized ability of dentists to do such. Billing responsibly is of the utmost importance.

We surveyed mitochondrial DNA haplotype divergence within and between populations of six species of North American chickadees (Parus, Subgenus Poecile) with the following results. (1) Genotype diversities (range 0.3 to 0.7) and low nucleotide diversities (range 3 to 27 × 10 -4 ) within populations were typical of known vertebrates. (2) The two widespread, northern species (atricapillus and hudsonicus) exhibit little mtDNA genetic differentiation throughout their previously glaciated continental distributions, most likely because of recent, postglacial range expansions. (3) Newfoundland populations of atricapillus and maritime province (Newfoundland plus Nova Scotia) populations of hudsonicus have distinct mtDNA haplotypes which differ from continental haplotypes by single restriction site changes. (4) Haplotypes of the southeastern U.S. species P. carolinensis divide into eastern and western sets which have diverged by three percent. This heretofore unrecognized, divided population structure may correspond to the Tombigbee River/ Mobile Bay disjunction known in some other vertebrate taxa. (5) Allopatric populations of the southwestern species sclateri and gambeli exhibit divergences of one and three percent respectively. (6) Prevailing interspecific divergence distances of three to seven percent suggest speciation early in the Pleistocene rather than during late (e.g., Wisconsin) glaciations. (7) Phylogenetic analyses suggest that North American taxa include two clades, hudsonicus-rufescens-sclateri versus carolinensis-atricapillus-gambeli and that carolinensis and atricapillus are not sister species., (© 1993 The Society for the Study of Evolution.)