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Kampylaster incurvatus Koehler 1920 FIGURE 6A–G Kampylaster granulatus Koehler 1920: 8 (nomen nudum) Kampylaster incurvatus Koehler 1920: 138; Fisher 1940: 150; Madsen 1955: 13; H.E.S. Clark 1963: 48. Diagnosis Body weakly stellate (R/r=1.0 at R=1.1.7). Marginal plates and lateral edge with round granules, forming rounded, thick edge with close-set granules extending onto the distal actinal intermediate areas adjacent to the inferomarginals (Fig. 6C). Granules round, homogeneous in size and shape, close set (Fig. 6B, G). Furrow spines, 3–4, elongate, unwebbed, widely spaced in transverse series relative to tube foot furrow. Comments One specimen (USNM 1183749) was found with 12 brooded juveniles (Fig. 6C, D, E). This is the first account of brooded juveniles since Fisher (1940) described brooding specimens from the Ross Sea. Juveniles described herein are slightly larger (R= 18 mm) than those described by Fisher (R= 15 mm). Three were found in the mouth cavity rather than adjacent to the mouth. Occurrence Enderby Land east to the Ross Sea. D’Urville Sea (off coast of Adelie Land), Terre Adélie. Palmer Archipelago, Scotia Sea, and South Shetlands. 6–935 m. (depth range extended) Description Body thick, arched, shape is pentagonal to stellate (R/r=1.1–2.2), interradial arcs weakly curved, lateral edge crenulate (Fig. 6A, C). Abactinal plates flattened, imbricate, closely articulated, individually oval to round oblong in shape. With granules removed, plates smooth, flat (Fig. 6F). Surface covered by evenly distributed granules, round, approximately 3 to 6 (5) along a 1.0 mm line (at R= 1.5 cm), variably widely to closely spaced. Granules form part of surficial cover that obscures plate boundaries. Granules variably round to flat topped. Papulae single, widely spaced on disk at arm base. Papulae absent from interradial and distal arm regions. Madreporite convex like but surface flush with plate surface, covered by and obscured by granules, sulci shallow. Marginal plates forming rounded, crenulate edge (Fig. 6C). Superomarginals and inferomarginals flattened to weakly concave, imbricate, approximately 28–30 per interradius at R=1.5. Superomarginals and inferomarginals offset with inferomarginals forming a sinusoidal contact with superomarginals. Marginals obscured by round granules, identical to those on abactinal plates (Fig. 6G). Marginal plate surfaces smooth and clear after granules have been removed. Inferomarginal plates, with 8–14 blunt, cylindrical granules in irregular arrangement, forming dorsolateral edge along disk and arms. Actinal surface composed of plate series in linear rows between inferomarginals and adambulacrals. Granular cover from inferomarginal plates continues onto periphery of actinal intermediate surface, acutely transitioning to spines. Actinal plates round to irregular in shape, flattened each with 1 to 5 blunt spines (Fig. 6C). Area adjacent to oral plates with larger, irregular shaped tissue filled space. Dermis covers actinal intermediate plates. Furrow spines, 3 to 4, elongate, unwebbed, widely spaced in transverse series relative to tube foot furrow (Fig. 6C). Oral plate furrow spines 4, decreasing in length with longest spines projecting directly into mouth, shortest spine adjacent to opening of tube foot furrow. Oral plate surface with no surficial accessories. Distinct ridge along midline of oral plate surface where tissue filled fossae is present between the two half plates. Brooded Juveniles One individual (USNM 1183749) was found with 12 brooded juveniles adjacent to its mouth and oral space (Fig. 6C). Three remain in the oral cavity with the others separated. Individuals were all similar in size with R=1.8 r= 1.6 cm. Body shape more pentagonal at this size, R/r=1.1 (Fig. 6D, E). Abactinal surface was covered with pointed spinelets with inferomarginals approximately twice the length. Spinelets with roughened surfaces, jagged tips. Actinal plates not observed. Inferomarginal plates in direct contact with adambulacral plates. Furrow spines 1 or 2 per adambulacral plate, 4 along each arm series at this size (Fig. 6E). Oral plates with 4 such spines. Spines similar to those of inferomarginals, with roughened surfaces, jagged tips., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 22-24, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Koehler, R. (1920) Echinodermata: Asteroidea. Scientific Reports of the Australiasian Antarctic Expedition, C 8, 1 - 308. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85380","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Madsen, F. J. (1955) Echinoderms other than holothurians collected in sub-Antarctic and Antarctic Seas, mainly by the Norvegia- Expeditions 1928 - 1930. Scientific Results of the Norwegian Antarctic Expeditions 1927 - 1928, 37, 1 - 17.","Clark, H. E. S. (1963) The Fauna of the Ross Sea. Part 3. Asteroidea. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin, 151, 1 - 84."]}

The significance of Crossaster japonicus and Northern Hemisphere species Fell (1958) identified sufficient similarity between Crossaster multispinus and the North Pacific Crossaster japonicus (Fisher, 1911) to argue that the latter was a synonym of the former. This was met with disagreement by Rowe & Gates (1995) who returned the two species to their original status. O’Hara (1998) agreed with Rowe & Gates (1995) in further retaining the two species as separate. A phylogenetic treatment using mitochondrial and nuclear genes surveyed North Atlantic Crossaster papposus and Crossaster squamatus (D̂derlein, 1900), including exemplars of Southern Hemisphere Crossaster multispinus and Crossaster campbellicus in their analysis of Northern Hemisphere species (Ringvold & Moum 2020) concluding that they were closely related and possibly sister species. Crossaster japonicus was not among the species surveyed but has been historically considered as morphologically similar to Crossaster papposus (Fisher, 1911). In contrast Mah & Foltz (2011b) found Crossaster multispinus, Crossaster borealis, and Crossaster papposus on three separate clades suggesting that the northern and southern Crossaster species are very different from one another. Molecular phylogenetic reviews have shown varying results when comparing asteroid species in the same genus from northern and southern hemispheres. Porania, sensu Clark & Downey (1992) included Arctic and Antarctic species. However, following phylogenetic work by Mah & Foltz (2014) this was found to be paraphyletic, including two divergent lineages resulting in the Antarctic taxon being returned to the genus Glabraster. In contrast, a phylogenetic overview of Hippasteria species (Foltz et al. 2013; Mah et al. 2014) in northern and southern hemispheres revealed that multiple species were part of a widely distributed single species. More robust sampling of relevant Northern and Southern Hemisphere species will be necessary to more fully test relationships between lineages in order to fully determine their diversification patterns and to test the monophyly of Crossaster. Occurrence South Africa, Marion Island, Tristan de Cunha, Gough Islands, Bass Strait, Tasmanian coast, Southeast coast of Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania, off Cape Hawke, Western Australian coast, Macquarie Island, New Zealand. 80–1152 m. Material Examined USNM 1123438, East of Auckland Islands, New Zealand, South Pacific Ocean, −50.858, 166.7, 135– 139 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 19 Feb. 1965. 20 dry specs. R=5.1 r=2.0, R=3.5 r=1.7, R=4.3 r=1.7, R=4.6 r=1.8, R=4.4 r=1.8, R=3.7 r=1.7, R=3.7 r=1.5, R=5.3 r=2.3, R=2.2 r=1.0, R=1.7 r=0.8, R=1.1 r=0.5, R=1.1 r=0.4, R=1.2 r=0.4, R=1.0 r=0.4, R=1.2 r=0.4, R=0.9 r=0.5, R=1.2 r=0.5, R=1.3 r=0.5 R=0.8 r=0.3, R=1.0 r=0.3, 11 arms, R=3.4 r=1.2, R=0.8 r=0.3, 10 arms, R=3.8 r=1.6, R=0.8 r=0.4, 12 arms. USNM 1122439, East of Auckland Islands, New Zealand, South Pacific Ocean, −50.858, 166.7, 135– 139 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 19 Feb. 1965. 1 dry spec. R=3.1 r=1.5, 11 arms. USNM 1122443, Macquarie Island, New Zealand, South Pacific Ocean, −54.525, 159.025, 494− 714 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 10 Feb. 1965. 2 dry specs. R=1.8 r=0.7, 10 arms, R=1.0 r=0.5, 9 arms. USNM 1122950, East of Auckland Islands, New Zealand, South Pacific Ocean, −50.858, 166.7, 135– 139 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 19 Feb. 1965. 1 dry spec. R= 5.2 r=2.3, 11 arms. USNM 1521168, Hjort Seamount, Macquarie Island, −56.333, 156.483, 833– 842 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 12 Feb. 1965. 1 dry spec. R=1.4 r=0.5, 9 arms. WAM Z105079, Ningaloo, Western Australia. −34.625556, 119.974444, 1074.6 m. Coll. A.M. Hosie & A. Hara, 12 Feb. 2020. 1 wet spec. R=4.6 r=1.2. MV F270825, Baseline, Tasmanian Seamounts, Tasmania, Australia. −44.106111, 146.203611, 965− 940 m. Coll. Coll. A. Williams, A.A. Weber & R-L Erickson, CSIRO, R/V Investigator, 6 Dec. 2018. 2 wet specs. R=1.7 r=0.8, 10 arms. R=0.7 r=0.3, 10 arms. MV F 270830, Central north Tasmanian Seamounts, Tasmania, Australia. −44.153056, 147.195, 1000−1038 m. Coll. A. Williams, A.A. Weber & R-L Erickson, CSIRO, R/V Investigator, 27 Nov. 2018. 1 wet spec. R=0.6 r=0.2, 10 arms. MV F270824, Pedra southern Flank, Tasmanian Seamounts, Tasmania, Australia. −44.267778, 147.108889, 915−1182 m. Coll. A. Williams, A.A. Weber & R-L Erickson, CSIRO, R/V Investigator, 25 Nov. 2018. 2 wet specs. R=2.1 r=0.8, 10 arms, R=2.3 r=0.8, 10 arms. MV F270831 Baseline, Tasmanian Seamounts, Tasmania, Australia. −44.096111, 146.679722, 560 m. Coll. A. Williams, A.A. Weber & R-L Erickson, CSIRO, R/V Investigator, 8 Dec. 2018. 2 wet spec. R=0.6 r=0.2, 10 arms, R=0.3 r=0.2, 11 arms., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 47-48, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Fell, H. B. (1958) Deep-sea echinoderms of New Zealand. Zoology Publications from Victoria University of Wellington, 24, 1 - 40, 5 pls.","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76 (xiii), 1 - 420. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76. i","Rowe, F. W. E. & Gates, J. (1995) Echinodermata. In: Wells, A. (Ed.), Zoological Catalogue of Australia 33. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 1 - 510.","O'Hara, T. D. (1998) Systematics and Biology of Macquarie Island Echinoderms. Memoirs of Museum Victoria, 57 (2), 167 - 223. https: // doi. org / 10.24199 / j. mmv. 1999.57.09","Ringvold, H. & Moum, T. (2020) On the genus Crossaster (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) and its distribution. PLoS One, 15 (1), e 0227223. https: // doi. org / 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0227223","Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Mah C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2014) New Taxa and Taxonomic Revisions to the Poraniidae (Valvatacea; Asteroidea) with Comments on Feeding Biology. Zootaxa, 3795 (3), 327 - 372. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3795.3.7","Foltz, D., Fatland, S., Eleaume, M., Markello, K., Howell, K., Neil, K. & Mah, C. (2013) Global population divergence of the sea star Hippasteria phrygiana corresponds to onset of the last glacial period of the Pleistocene. Marine Biology, 160 (5), 1285 - 1296. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / s 00227 - 013 - 2180 - 1"]}

Antarctic Asteroidea: Morphological trends between deep-sea versus shallow taxa Depth has played an important role in the diversification of different groups of deep-sea Asteroidea. For example, the widely occurring Atlantic species Zoroaster fulgens Thomson, 1873 was found to display different morphotypes present at different depths (Howell et al. 2004). Mah (1998, 1999), Mah & Foltz (2011b), and Zhang et al. (2019) have all shown phylogenetic analyses of the Brisingida which have shown stemward, shallow-water clades, including the Antarctic Odinella Fisher, 1940 relative to derived clades, such as the Freyellidae that have diversified into bathyal and abyssal habitats. Although data collection on bathymetric distributions of Antarctic asteroid species remains ongoing, some trends are evident. Observations of USAP specimens suggest morphological differentiation with depth appear evident within different groups. Based on genera of the Goniasteridae and the Asterinidae documented here and in Mah (2011) there are several aspects of skeletal robustness appear more strongly developed in shallow-water settings versus those which occur in bathyal and abyssal settings. Within the Goniasteridae, Chitonaster Sladen, 1889 and Notioceramus show more heavily calcified granules, thicker spines and a more heavily developed skeleton compared to deeper-water species. Mah (2011: fig. 3) outlined this for Chitonaster, showing that the shallow-water Chitonaster trangae Mah, 2011 displayed the presence of papulae, larger abactinal plates, thicker spines, and more heavily calcified granules versus those Chitonaster species below 2000 m, which showed smaller abactinal plates, absent papulae and finer spines. Similarly, Notioceramus anomalus shows more heavily calcified granules and marginal plates and thicker furrow spines relative to the bathyal/abyssal species of Notioceramus documented herein. Similarly, for the Asterinidae, Kampylaster species in shallow settings (Kampylaster incurvatus in shallower habitats display rounder, more strongly developed granules, and more heavily developed skeletal plates than in species from deeper-water settings (e.g., Kampylaster claireae n. sp.). Although known from a single specimen, the deep-water Paralophaster paucispinus n. sp. shows far fewer spines per paxilla than species of Paralophaster from shallower depths. In contrast, several species occur across wide depth distributions but don’t appear to show appreciable morphological differences. Odontaster meridionalis was documented from between 0 and 2907 m as reported here and the astropectinid Psilaster charcoti (Koehler, 1906) has been documented from between 30 and 3246 m (A.M. Clark 1962). Gut contents & feeding biology from specimen collections Specimens reported herein include two specimens with gut contents which provide further evidence for Antarctic/high-latitude predation by solasterids. Among gut content findings were the first evidence of predation by Paralophaster. Three specimens of Paralophaster antarcticus, USNM 1136644, 1418098, and CASIZ 174645 showed disarticulated comatulid ossicle remains within the gut cavity. Ossicles in 1136644 were unidentifiable, 1418098 and CASIZ 174645 were fragments of the antedonid crinoid Florometra mawsoni A.H. Clark, 1937, identified based on the small, fine spinelets on the distal edge of the brachials. A second specimen in USNM 1418098 contained a molt from an amphipod in its gut. One specimen of Paralophaster godfroyi, USNM E 41734 showed unidentifiable disarticulated comatulid crinoid ossicles in its gut cavity. No prior record of predation by Paralophaster could be located, but predatory habits appear to be similar to those of Lophaster, which has been observed feeding on comatulid crinoids (Mah, unpublished data). Predation on other asteroids, especially cannibalistic behavior has never been reported for Paralophaster or Lophaster. A specimen of Lophaster stellans, USNM 1662078 (Fig. 24C) was also observed with gut contents that appear to be disarticulated echinoderm ossicles, apparently composed of paxillae and adambulacral ossicles from a solasterid asteroid, perhaps Lophaster or Paralophaster. One specimen of Solaster regularis, USNM 1137298 (Fig. 24A, B) from Dawson Island, in the Magellan Strait, at 2–9 m, demonstrates a novel observation of feeding for this species, with what appears to be a partially digested asteriid, Anasterias antarcticus in the mouth being digested. Fisher (1940) reported remains of the pterasterid Pteraster sp. from gut contents of an individual of this species collected from the Falkland Islands. No other reports of feeding by Solaster regularis could be located. Although Solaster regularis is poorly understood, other Solaster species are known for their predatory behavior, feeding on a range of echinoderms including other sea stars (Jangoux 1982). Several specimens of Crossaster penicillatus contained fish vertebrae, various organic debris and sponge spicules, suggesting that they feed in part on detritus.

ODONTASTERIDAE Verrill, 1899 Comments The Odontasteridae currently includes six genera, which all occur in the Southern Hemisphere, primarily at high-latitudes with some species of Odontaster Verrill, 1880 exceptionally present in the Northern Hemisphere in deep-water settings from the North Atlantic and North Pacific (Fisher 1911; Clark & Downey 1992) and one species of Hoplaster Perrier in Milne-Edwards, 1882 from the Atlantic (Clark & Downey 1992). The most recent genus and species within the Odontasteridae, Diabocilla clarki McKnight, 2006 was described from New Zealand waters (McKnight 2006). The Odontasteridae has largely been supported as monophyletic by three-gene molecular data (Mah & Foltz 2011b) relative to other families within the Valvatida. The Chaetasteridae Sladen, 1889 was supported as the sister branch to the Odontasteridae. Genera within the Odontasteridae have shown superficial resemblance with taxa in the Goniasteridae and the Astropectinidae Gray, 1840 owing to its spiny, paxillate abactinal and marginal plates suggesting broader affinities. Most genera are identified by a distinctive hyaline recurved spine or spines on each interradial oral plate. Two genera, Hoplaster and Diabocilla lack these spines and have not been tested with molecular phylogenetic data. Diagnosis Body shape pentagonal to strongly stellate. Abactinal plates variably convex and flat ranging to paxillate or tabulate with surface covered by accessories, variably granules or spinelets. Papulae single, limited to abactinal surface. No enlarged spines. Marginal plates blocky, quadrate in shape; appearing variably as a wide distinct border around body periphery to a narrow, lateral-facing series present along a crenulate actinolateral-ridge. Marginal plate accessories, ranging from granules to spinelets, present in some species in high density, abundance. Actinal plates in chevron-like formation, intermediate areas variable in size. Actinal plate accessories variably granules to spinelets. Spines on adambulacral plates in most with transverse series. No superambulacral plates. Most genera with one or two large hyaline-tipped recurved spine or spines on the oral plate. These spines absent in Hoplaster and Diabocilla., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 39-40, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Verrill, A. E. (1899) Revision of certain genera and species of starfishes and ophiurans. Proceedings of the US National Museum, 17, 245 - 297. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 00963801.1000.245","Verrill, A. E. (1880) Notice of the remarkable marine fauna occupying the outer banks off the southern coast of New England. American Journal of Science, 3 (20), 390 - 403. https: // doi. org / 10.2475 / ajs. s 3 - 20.119.390","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76 (xiii), 1 - 420. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76. i","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Milne-Edwards, A. (1882) Rapport sur les Travaux de la Commission chargee par M. le Ministre de l'Instruction Publique d'etudier la faune sous-marine dans les grandes profondeurs de la Mediterranee et de l'Ocean Atlantique. Archives des missions scientifiques et litteraires, 9 (3), 1 - 59.","McKnight, D. G. (2006) The marine fauna of New Zealand, Echinodermata: Asteroidea (Sea- stars). 3. Orders Velatida, Spinulosida, Forcipulatida, Brisingida with addenda to Paxillosida, Valvatida. NIWA Biodiversity Memoir, 120, 1 - 187.","Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Gray, J. E. (1840) XXXII. A synopsis of the genera and species of the class Hypostoma (Asterias, Linnaeus). Annals of the Magazine of Natural History, 6, 175 - 184 + 275 - 290. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 03745484009443296"]}

Crossaster penicillatus Sladen, 1889 FIGURE 14 A–E Crossaster penicillatus Sladen, 1889: 446, pl. 70, 72; Koehler 1907: 141, 1908; H.L. Clark 1923: 295, 1926: 21; Fisher 1940: 180; Mortensen 1933: 273; A.M. Clark 1952: 197; A.M. Clark & Courtman-Stock 1976: 86; Atkinson & Sink 2018: 435. Solaster penicillatus Bell, 1905: 249. Crossaster multispinus H.L. Clark, 1916: 66, pl. 18; H.L. Clark 1946: 150; Rowe & Gates 1995: 113; O’Hara 1998: 182, pl. 1f. Crossaster japonicus Fell, 1958: 17, pl. 2; 1960: 64; McKnight 1993: 193 (non Fisher 1911). Diagnosis Arms 9–12, gradually tapering. Body stellate, R/r=2.0–3.3. Interradial arcs acute (Fig. 14A). Abactinal plates forming open reticulate mesh on disk and arms with skin present between lobate plates. Individual small plates present in skin filled regions (Fig. 14A, B). Abactinal paxillae with pointed spinelets, 4–15, each bearing hyaline tips. Central spinelets most elongate flanked by shorter similar spines. Marginal plates, approximately 15–18 per side (30–36 per interradius) at R>3.0, with smaller individuals (R=1.0–1.5) with 10–12 per side (20–24 per interradius). Marginal series apparently composed of inferomarginal plates, each series composed of a single, large paxillae each bearing spinelets, 10–30, mostly 10–20 (30 in relatively large individuals, R=5.2) widely spaced (Fig. 14D). Actinal intermediate region minimal, reticulate plates with skin forming open mesh. Actinal plates with 2–4 spinelets (Fig. 14F). Furrow spines 1–5, mostly 4 or 5 decreasing distally, basally webbed. Subambulacral spines 5–8, mostly 7 or 8 proximally decreasing in number to distal arm region, arranged in transverse series (Fig. 14E, F), each sitting on a curved convexity or crest of the adambulacral plate. Oral plate with 9–10 furrow spines with 3 spines projecting into the mouth, most elongate. Oral plates with distinct ridge, each oral plate surface bearing 2 to 4 elongate spines. Color in life, dark pink to orange, sometimes with white highlights. Comments Specimens recorded here are the first records of this species from New Zealand waters. As indicated in the diagnosis, these individuals had widely spaced slender paxillae with 4–15 spines, 3–5 furrow spines, and 6–8 elongate subambulacral spines in a transverse array. These specimens were consistent with Sladen’s (1889) description of this species, varying in having greater arm number (n=10–12 versus 9 in the description). Gut contents of specimens examined included fish vertebrae, sponge spicules and indeterminate organic debris, but possibly squid tissue. Synonymy of Crossaster multispinus Based on USNM specimens and comparisons of type specimen descriptions, Crossaster multispinus H.L. Clark, 1916 appears to be a synonym of Crossaster penicillatus Sladen, 1889, together forming a widely distributed species occurring from Tasmania and New South Wales to the southern Indian Ocean. O’Hara (1998) reported Crossaster multispinus from Macquarie Island with 15 long, sharp abactinal paxillar spinelets, 5 to 6 furrow spines and 7 subambulacral spines, at R=2.3, which is consistent with H.L. Clark’s (1916) original account for this species (with type R=4.0 cm) which indicated 8–15 long slender spines on each paxillae, 5– 8 furrow spines (7–8 proximally, 5–6 distally) and 7 to 9 subambulacral spines. O’Hara’s (1998) specimen differed in having 30 spines on the inferomarginal paxillae versus 12 to 15 on Sladen’s type. USNM 1122950 from New Zealand (R=5.2) displays inferomarginal paxillae with variably 10–30 spines suggesting there is some variation for this character. Sladen’s (1889: 446) description of Crossaster penicillatus indicates abactinal paxillae with “ten or more” spinelets, 4 to 5 furrow spines and 7 to 8 subambulacral spines for an individual with R= 3.4 to 3.6 cm. USNM 1122950 from New Zealand (R=5.2) identified as Crossaster penicillatus displays 3 to 5 furrow spines and 7 to 8 subambulacral spines. Sladen (1889) did not count the total number of marginal paxillae in description but a count of this character from his plate (LXX: fig. 5) suggests approximately 15–18 per arm side, compared to 16 on H.L. Clark’s description of Crossaster multispinus. The furrow spine count and the number of spines on the surface of each oral plate of C. multispinus is 14 and 8–10 respectively versus 9 and 7–8, respectively in Crossaster penicillatus. H.L. Clark’s type of C. multispinus was larger (R=4.0) than that of C. multispinu s (R=3.4–3.6), it is argued that these minor differences are explained as being size-related. H.L. Clark’s (1916) original description of C. multispinus compared this species with the Northern Hemisphere Crossaster papposus. McKnight (2006) briefly compared C. multispinu s with C. penicillatus but misidentified C. multispinus, as outlined herein., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 45-47, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Koehler, R. (1907) Asteries et Echinides recueillis dans les mers australes par la Scotia (1902 - 1904). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 32 (6), 140 - 147.","Koehler, R. (1908) Asteries, Ophiures et Echinides de l'Expedition antarctique nationale ecossaise. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 46, 529 - 649. https: // doi. org / 10.1017 / S 008045680000380 X","Clark, H. L. (1923) The Echinoderm fauna of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum, 13 (7), 221 - 435, 23 pls.","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Mortensen, T. (1933) Echinoderms of South Africa (Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea) Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen's Pacific Expedition 1914 - 16. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk naturhistorisk Forening, 93 (65), 215 - 400.","Clark, A. M. (1952) Some echinoderms from South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 33, 193 - 221. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 00359195109519884","Clark, A. M. & Courtman-Stock, J. (1976) The Echinoderms of Southern Africa. British Museum of Natural History, London, 277 pp.","Atkinson, L. J. & Sink, K. J. (2018) Field Guide to the Offshore Marine Invertebrates of South Africa. Malachite Marketing and Media, Pretoria, 498 pp. https: // doi. org / 10.15493 / SAEON. PUB. 10000001","Bell, F. J. (1905) On the Echinoderma found off the coast of South Africa. Part II. Asteroidea. Marine Investigations of South Africa, 3, 241 - 253.","Clark, H. L. (1916) Report on the sea-lilies, starfishes, brittle-stars and sea-urchins obtained by the F. I. S. Endeavour on the coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia. Biological Results of the Fishing experiments carried on by the F. I. S. Endeavour 1909 - 1914, 4 (1), 1 - 123. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 13854","Clark, H. L. (1946) The Echinoderm fauna of Australia. Its composition and its origin. Publications of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 566, 1 - 567.","Rowe, F. W. E. & Gates, J. (1995) Echinodermata. In: Wells, A. (Ed.), Zoological Catalogue of Australia 33. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 1 - 510.","O'Hara, T. D. (1998) Systematics and Biology of Macquarie Island Echinoderms. Memoirs of Museum Victoria, 57 (2), 167 - 223. https: // doi. org / 10.24199 / j. mmv. 1999.57.09","Fell, H. B. (1958) Deep-sea echinoderms of New Zealand. Zoology Publications from Victoria University of Wellington, 24, 1 - 40, 5 pls.","McKnight, D. G. (1993) Records of echinoderms (excluding holothurians) from the Chatham Islands. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 20, 191 - 200. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 03014223.1993.10422859","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76 (xiii), 1 - 420. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76. i","McKnight, D. G. (2006) The marine fauna of New Zealand, Echinodermata: Asteroidea (Sea- stars). 3. Orders Velatida, Spinulosida, Forcipulatida, Brisingida with addenda to Paxillosida, Valvatida. NIWA Biodiversity Memoir, 120, 1 - 187."]}

SOLASTERIDAE Viguier, 1878 Comments The Solasteridae are among the most visible among Antarctic asteroids, including genera, such as Lophaster Verrill, 1878 and Paralophaster Fisher, 1940 which includes among the largest species [e.g., Lophaster gaini Koehler, 1912b up to R= 8–9 cm and Paralophaster antarcticus (Koehler, 1912a) up to R=16.0 cm] in the Southern Ocean. Solasterids, which historically included Cuenotaster until 2011, are among the more regularly documented asteroid taxa reported in monographs of Antarctic Asteroidea (e.g., Fisher 1940; Koehler 1912a, 1912b, 1920; A.M. Clark 1962; H.E.S. Clark 1963), implying they are significant members of the benthic community at high-latitudes. It is surprising that so little has been documented regarding their basic biology, including feeding habits and other ecological information, especially given that where solasterids have been studied (e.g., Solaster Forbes, 1839 in the Pacific Northwest), they are important predators, playing significant roles in community structure (Van Veldhuizen & Oakes 1981). Among Antarctic solasterids, Lophaster gaini is a predator on Antarctic scallops (Berkman 1988) and Solaster regularis is a predator on sea stars and other echinoderms (Mutschke & Mah 2009). The Solasteridae have been most recently placed within the Valvatacea with molecular phylogenetic overviews reaffirming their relationship with the Asterinidae and related groups such as the Ganeriidae (now a subfamily) (Mah & Foltz 2011b; Mah & Fujita 2020). Solasterids are diverse at high-latitude settings, including 11 species in four genera, Lophaster, Paralophaster, Solaster, and Crossaster (Mah 2021). Among significant changes to the Solasteridae from this region, A.M. Clark (1962) synonymized the Antarctic Myoraster Fisher 1940 with Paralophaster and Cuenotaster, historically placed within the Solasteridae was moved to the Ganeriidae based on molecular data (Mah & Foltz 2011b). All genera of Solasteridae are now known to occur widely, with occurrence of Crossaster, Lophaster, Paralophaster, and Solaster in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Paralophaster, which had previously recorded exclusively from Antarctic and adjacent regions, has been recorded from deep-sea, North Pacific settings (Mah & Fujita 2020). Key to the Genera of High-Latitude Solasteridae (0) Arms 5, exceptionally 6................................................................................ (1) (0’) Multiple arms (7–12)................................................................................. (2) (1) Superomarginal plates well-developed and morphologically distinct from adjacent abactinal paxillae, present at base of inferomarginal plates................................................................. Lophaster Verrill, 1878 (1’) Superomarginal plates weakly developed, similar or indistinguishable from abactinal paxillae.... Paralophaster Fisher, 1940 (2) Abactinal skeleton reticulate, irregular with wide, open. Paxillae widely spaced with needle-like spinelets. Multiple papulae (>10 present between skin filled plates)....................................... Crossaster Müller & Troschel, 1840a (2’) Abactinal plates more closely arranged, fenestrate. Paxillae more closely arranged with shorter spinelets. One or two papulae present within pores on abactinal skeleton.................................................. Solaster Forbes, 1839, Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 44, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Viguier, C. (1878) Classification des Stellerides. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l'Academie des sciences, 86, 681 - 683.","Verrill, A. E. (1878) Art. XX. Notice of recent additions to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of North America. No. 1. American Journal of Science and Arts, Series 3, 16, 91 - 96 + 207 - 215. https: // doi. org / 10.2475 / ajs. s 3 - 16.93.207","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Koehler, R. (1912 b) Echinoderms nouveaux recueillis dans les mers antarctiques par le \" Pourquoi Pas? \" (Asterias, Ophiures et Echinides). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 39 (4), 151 - 163.","Koehler, R. (1912 a) Echinodermes (Asteries, Ophiures et Echinides). In: Deuxieme Expedition Antarctique Francaise 1908 - 1910 J. Charcot. Masson et cie, Paris, pp. 1 - 277. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85347","Koehler, R. (1920) Echinodermata: Asteroidea. Scientific Reports of the Australiasian Antarctic Expedition, C 8, 1 - 308. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85380","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","Clark, H. E. S. (1963) The Fauna of the Ross Sea. Part 3. Asteroidea. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin, 151, 1 - 84.","Forbes, E. (1839) On the Asteriadae of the Irish Sea. Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, 8, 114 - 129.","Van Veldhuizen, H. D. & Oakes, V. J. (1981) Behavioral responses of seven species of asteroids to the asteroid predator, Solaster dawsoni (responses of asteroids to the predator Solaster dawsoni). Oecologia, 48 (2), 214 - 220. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / BF 00347967","Berkman, P. A. (1988) Ecology of the Circumpolar Antarctic Scallop, Adamussium colbecki (Smith, 1902). Doctoral Dissertation, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, 215 pp.","Mutschke, E. & Mah, C. (2009) Asteroidea-Starfish. In: Haussermann, V. & F ˆ rsterra, G. (Eds.), Marine Benthic Fauna of Chilean Patagonia. Nature in Focus, Santiago, Chile, 1000 pp.","Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Mah, C. & Fujita, T. (2020) New species and occurrence records of Japanese Solasteridae and Ganeriidae including a new species of Paralophaster from the North Pacific with an overview of Hyalinothrix. Zootaxa, 4750 (1), 67 - 100. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4750.1.4","Mah, C. L. (2021) World Asteroidea Database. Solasteridae Viguier, 1878. Available from: http: // www. marinespecies. org / asteroidea / aphia. php? p = taxdetails & id = 123143 (accessed 15 November 2022)","Muller, J. & Troschel, F. H. (1840 a) [untitled]. Monatsberichte der Koniglichen Preussische Akademie des Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1840, 100 - 106."]}

Synonymy of Solaster longoi Stampanato & Jangoux, 1993 New specimens of apparent Solaster longoi Stampanato & Jangoux, 1993 showing further size variation, including specimens from R= 1.8 to 6.4 cm were examined indicating that it is a synonym of Solaster regularis. The type series of S. longoi show a size range of R= 1.9 to 4.1 cm with the holotype showing R= 3.3 cm. Specimens with R=1.8 to 2.5 showed several overlapping characters between S. longoi and S. regularis as outlined in Stampanato & Jangoux (1993) and A.M. Clark (1962) indicating that S. longo i are small individuals of S. regularis. Specimens from USNM 1121461 for example showed 1 or 2 actinal intermediate spines as well as 2–3 furrow spines as outlined for type specimens for S. longoi, but also displayed 4 furrow and transverse subambulacral spines. One individual, USNM 1137343 at R= 6.4 cm showed 3 to 6 inferomarginal spines distally (S. longoi) but 10–11 spines proximally (S. regularis) as well as 5 to 8 spinelets on the paxillae which shows further overlap between S. longoi and S. regularis. These characters are also consistent with the presence of 8 arms and the occurrence of S. regularis in the Ross Sea suggesting that S. longoi shows no clear morphological distinction from S. regularis. Comments A summary of new specimens and published records of Solaster regularis confirms that it possesses a widely occurring high-latitude, including circus-polar distribution, including the South Atlantic (Clark & Downey 1992), the Indian Ocean (Kerguelen, Prince Edwards & Marion Island, unpublished data) (Stampanato & Jangoux 2004), the South Pacific, including Chile and the Ross Sea (Mutschke & Mah 2009, data presented herein). Specimen data also documents its known range from littoral to bathyal settings (2–2060 m). This species has been found in association with methane seep, chemosynthetic bivalve faunas off the Chilean coast (Sellanes et al. 2008). Occurrence South Pacific (Chile), South Atlantic (Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Falkland Islands), Straits of Magellan, Tierra Del Fuego, Bellinghausen Sea, South Shetland Islands, Burdwood Bank, from Enderby Land eastwards to Wilhelm II Land and from Coulman Island in the Ross Sea, Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands, Marion Island, Heard Island, 183–603 m. New Depth Range 2 –2060 m. Material Examined USNM E38601, Edward VIII Peninsula, Marie Byrd Land, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, −77.1517, −158.998, 344– 357 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin. 1 dry spec. R=1.3 r=0.5, 9 arms. USNM E 43863, Near Cape Hallett, Moubray Bay, Victoria Land, Ross Sea, Antarctica. −72.0967, 172.253, 392 m. Coll. R/V Atka, 12 Jan. 1958. 1 dry spec. R=1.7 r=0.5, 8 arms. USNM E13766, Puerto Eden, Chile, South Pacific. Coll. P. Dayton, 19 Nov. 1972. 1 dry spec. R=8.7 r=2.6, 9 arms. USNM 1084422, West mouth of Strait of Magellan, Chile, South Pacific Ocean, −52.717, −74.525, 188–247 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 6 Jan. 1966. 1 dry spec. R=5.1 r=1.7, 9 arms. USNM 1120952, Adjacent to the Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, Antarctica, −74.933, −174.233, 2022–2060 m. Coll. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 7 Feb. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=8.4 r=3.2, 8 arms. USNM 1121116, Staten Island, Tierra Del Fuego, Argentina, South Atlantic Ocean, −54.48, −63.83, 112 m. Coll. R/V Hero, 27 Oct. 1971. 1 dry spec. R=1.2 r=0.5, 9 arms. USNM 1121461, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, Antarctica, −71.275, 171.517, 659–714 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 14 Jan. 1967. 2 dry specs. R=2.5 r=0.7, R=1.8 r=0.9, 8 arms. USNM 1123106, Clarence Island, Strait of Magellan, −53.842, −71.642, 256– 269 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 1 April 1966. 4 dry specs. R=2.1 r=0.4, R=2.1 r−=0.7, R=1.7 r=0.4. all with 9 arms. USNM 1123445, 5 dry specs. R=6.3 r=1.7, R=7.5 r=1.5, R=9.5 r=2.5, R=7.4 r=2.0, R=4.4 r=1.5, R=3.1 r=0.9. Most with 9 arm, R=3.1, 8 arms. USNM 1136587, Strait of Magellan, Tierra del Fuego, −53.325, −66.675, 79– 80 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 27 Sept. 1962. 1 dry spec. R=6.5 r=1.7, 8 arms. USNM 1136648, West of Ashland Island, South Shetland Islands, Southern Ocean, Antarctica. −61.417, −56.517, 300 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 13 March 1964. 1 dry spec. R=2.4 r=1.0, 9 arms. USNM 1137297, N of Pennell Bank, Moubray, Victoria Land, Ross Sea, −72.442, 177.133, 1883–1890 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 12 Feb. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=6.5 r=2.6, 8 arms. USNM 1137343, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, Antarctica, −75.392, −174.267, 1225–1240 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 16 Jan. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=6.4 r=2.4, 8 arms. USNM 1137347, Victoria Land, Ross Sea, Antarctica, −72.058, 172.367, 344–348 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 10 Jan. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=2.4 r=1.0, 8 arms. USNM 1137298, Dawson Island, Strait of Magellan, Chile, South Pacific, −53.8589, −70.4311, 2 to 9 m. Coll. R/V Hero, 18 May 1969. 1 dry spec. R=6.5 r=2.3. 9 arms, feeding on Anasterias. USNM 1522915, Staten Island, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, South Atlantic Ocean, −54.57, −64.5, 73–76 m. Coll. R/V Hero, 7 Nov. 1971. 1 dry spec. R=3.2 r=1.2, 9 arms. USNM 1522916, East of South Orkney Islands, Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean, Antarctica. −60.575, −40.733, 631–641 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 13 April 1964. 1 dry spec. R=3.1 r=0.8, 8 arms. USNM 1523672, East of South Orkney Islands, Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean, Antarctica. −60.575, −40.733, 631–641 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 13 April 1964. 1 dry spec. R= 2.1 r=1.1, 8 arms., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 75-76, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Stampanato, S. & Jangoux, M. (1993) Les asterides (Echinodermata) de la Baie Breid (Cote de la Princesse Ragnhild, quartier Enderby, Antarctique), avec la description d'une nouvelle espece de Solaster. Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, 63, 175 - 184.","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Stampanato, S. & Jangoux, M. (2004) The asteroid fauna (Echinodermata) of Marion and Prince Edward Islands. Annals of the South African Museum, 112 (1), 1 - 16.","Mutschke, E. & Mah, C. (2009) Asteroidea-Starfish. In: Haussermann, V. & F ˆ rsterra, G. (Eds.), Marine Benthic Fauna of Chilean Patagonia. Nature in Focus, Santiago, Chile, 1000 pp.","Sellanes, J., Quiroga, E. & Neira, C. (2008) Megafauna community structure and trophic relationships at the recently discovered Concepcion Methane Seep Area, Chile, 36 ' S. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65, 1102 - 1111. https: // doi. org / 10.1093 / icesjms / fsn 099"]}

Abyssal Asterinidae Most Asterinidae have been reported from depths less than 500 m (O’Loughlin & Waters 2004; A.M. Clark 1993) with only a few genera extending into bathyal depths, including Kampylaster and Tremaster mirabilis reaching 700 and 1060 m, respectively (O’Loughlin & Waters 2004). Specimens of new Kampylaster species and Astrotholus n. gen. collected to 3020 and 3944 m record first occurrences of Asterinidae in the bathyal zone (2000–4000 m). The large number of new species discovered of Astrotholus and Kampylaster suggest that further sampling of greater depths are important to the understanding of Antarctic biodiversity of asteroids as well as of other echinoderms. Neither Astrotholus nor Kampylaster is known from beyond Antarctic/Subantarctic settings and thus diversification at present is thought to be in situ. This stands in contrast to other Antarctic asteroid groups, such as the Porcellanasteridae, which are wide-ranging deep-sea taxa, and include species present in both the Southern Ocean and in bathyal/abyssal habitats elsewhere in the world., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 76, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["O'Loughlin, P. M. & Waters, J. M. (2004) A molecular and morphological revision of genera of Asterinidae (Echinoderamta: Asteroidea). Memoirs of Museum Victoria, 61 (1), 1 - 40. https: // doi. org / 10.24199 / j. mmv. 2004.61.1","Clark, A. M. (1993) An index of names of recent Asteroidea. Part 2. Valvatida. E chinoderm Studies, 4, 187 - 366. https: // doi. org / 10.1201 / 9781003072553 - 4"]}

Paralophaster paucispinus n. sp. FIGURE 23 A–F Etymology The species epithet paucispinus is Latin for “few or little spines” alluding to the relatively few spines on the abactinal paxillae and the furrow spines. Diagnosis Body form stellate with broad disk, triangular arms (R/r=2.0), interradial arcs weakly curved (Fig. 23A, E). Abactinal paxillae with two to four spinelets (Fig. 23B). Disk broad with interradial regions divided by lobate plates (Fig. 23A, C). Marginal plates, only one row discernable, 26–28 per interradius (13–14 per arm side) (Fig. 23, D, E). Each marginal paxillae with 4–10 blunt spinelets. Furrow spines two proximally then one distally, subambulacral spines, two, widely spaced, lacking serrated shaft (Fig 23F). Comments Paralophaster paucispinus n. sp. is distinguished from other Paralophaster species by presence of significantly few spinelets on abactinal and marginal paxillae, as well as for low numbers of furrow and subambulacral spines. Paralophaster paucispinus is one of three Paralophaster species occurring at bathyal depths (3250–3285 m), including Paralophaster godfroyi (2450 m) and Paralophaster lorioli (4572 m). Description Body stellate (R/r=2.0), thick, arms short and triangular. Disk broad, interradial arcs straight or weakly curved (Fig. 23A, E). Abactinal surface paxillate, each with 2 to 4 short spinelets (Fig. 23B). Spinelets with denticulate or roughened tips. Paxillar plates with round bases. Body surface covered by membranous skin. Interradial regions with well-developed skeletal dividers with transverse extensions all formed from extended, lobate plates dividing the arms into their respective radial regions. These plates with 2 to 5 paxillae, identical to others on the disk. These interradial lobate plates culminate on the primary ring centrally on the disk. Lobate plates without paxillae otherwise lacking further accessories or features. Madreporite, quadrate, weakly raised with well-developed sulci located in contact with lobate dividers, surrounded by approximately 3 to 5 paxillae. Marginal plates 26–28 per interradius (13–14 per arm side), interradially extending onto actinal intermediate surface (Fig. 23C, D, E). Only one clear series of enlarged paxillae-shaped marginal plates observable between the terminal plate and the interradius on the disk. Marginal plates widely spaced, each separated by an interval equivalent to the length of one adambulacral plate. Each marginal plate base broad and thick, irregularly round in cross section, approximately twice the thickness of adjacent abactinal plates. Paxillar heads convex, brush-like, bearing 4 to 10 blunt spinelets. Terminal plate, round, surface convex. Actinal intermediate area spineless and plateless, covered with membranous skin, identical to that on the abactinal surface (Fig. 23D, E). Adambulacral plates covered over with membranous dermis. Furrow spines two then one distally along arm, unwebbed, pointing away from one another, each with smooth surface, tip pointed (Fig. 23F). Subambulacral spines one or two, smooth faces. Oral plates triangular, covered with dermis, each plate with 6 webbed furrow spines, totaling 12 per interradius. Oral plate surface with no spines. Occurrence Scotia Sea, 3250–3867 m. Material Examined Holotype. USNM 1660601, SE of South Orkney Islands, Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean, −62.15, −40.642, 3250– 3285 m. Coll. R/ V Eltanin USAP, 24 March 1964. 1 dry spec. R=2.6 r=1.3., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 69-71, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240

Astrotholus infernalis n. gen. n. sp. FIGURE 2A–F Hurtado-Garcia & Manjón-Cabeza 2022: 1220 (as Anseropoda antarctica) Etymology The species epithet “ infernalis ” describing “lower regions” and alluding to the great depth occurrence of this species. Diagnosis Body pentagonal to weakly stellate (R/r=1.3–2.5, but mostly between 1.4–1.6), arms triangular, disk arched, actinal surface concave, interradial arcs weakly curved to straight (Fig. 2A). Abactinal plates imbricate, flat to mound-like or arched (Fig. 2C). Abactinal plate surfaces each covered with spinelets, 4–20, mostly 5–10, widely spaced (Fig. 2B). Spinelet tips hyaline, 3–4. Marginal plates 30 to 38 to 40 (at R=1.0, R=1.2 to R=1.6 respectively) per interradius (arm tip to arm tip), imbricate. Superomarginal plates oval to quadrate in shape (Fig. 2C), plate surface with 5–12 spinelets bearing minute hyaline tips, 3–4 identical to those of abactinal plates. Inferomarginal plates approximately 50% the size of the superomarginal plates, quadrate in outline. Surface covered with 1–5 spinelets bearing minute hyaline tips, 3–4 identical to those on superomarginals and abactinal plates. Actinal plates imbricate, in 30–40 transverse rows showing direct continuity with inferomarginal and adambulacral plates (Fig. 2E). Plates round but elongate, each with sharp, elongate spines, 2–4 per plate (Fig. 2D, E, F). Furrow spines elongate with pointed tips, webbed (sometimes torn) 2 to 4 in palmate to straight series, subambulacral spines identically elongate with pointed tips and webbed, 2 to 4 per plate, set off from the furrow spine by a discrete space (Fig. 2F). Comments Astrotholus infernalis n. gen. n. sp. represents the deepest known member of the Asterinidae with collection from 3788–3944 m. Specimen USNM 1122403, the holotype of this species was cited as part of “ Anseropoda antarctica ” by Hurtado-Garcia & Manjón-Cabeza (2022) Occurrence Georgia Island, Elephant Island, Scotia Sea, South Atlantic, Tierra del Fuego. 1000–3944 m. Description Body pentagonal to weakly stellate (R/r=1.3–2.5, but mostly between 1.4–1.6), arms triangular, disk arched, actinal surface concave, interradial arcs weakly curved to straight (Fig. 2A). Abactinal plates imbricate, most scalar, irregularly rounded most showing smooth, flat surface others are more mound-like (Fig. 2A, C). Grooves arising as a result of adjacent mound-like plates. Plates largest on proximal region on disk and along radial regions of arms. Interradial plates more elongate in shape, arranged in transverse, ordered series with variably direct or slightly offset correspondence to superomarginal plates. Abactinal plate surfaces each covered with spinelets, 4–50, mostly 10–30, but number related to plate size. Spinelets cover each plate surface, closely but evenly spaced. Each spinelet with minute hyaline tips, 3–4. Madreporite triangular with deep sulci. Anus centrally located on disk, flanked by 4–6 plates, protected by overlying spinelets. Marginal plates 30 to 38 to 40 (at R=1.0, R=1.2 to R=1.6 respectively) per interradius (arm tip to arm tip). Superomarginal plates with 1:1 correspondence with inferomarginal plates. Superomarginal plates imbricate, shape ovoid to quadrate with rounded corners, variably offset or directly in association with serially arranged transverse, interradial abactinal plates (Fig. 2C). Superomarginal plate surfaces with 5–12 spinelets bearing minute hyaline tips, 3–4 identical to those present on abactinal plates. Inferomarginal plates approximately 50% the size of the superomarginal plates, quadrate in outline. Surface covered with 5–12 spinelets bearing minute hyaline tips, 3–4 identical to those on superomarginals and abactinal plates. The convex outline of the superomarginal and inferomarginal plates forms a crenulated online along the lateral edge of the body (Fig. 2C). Shallow groove present at contact between superomarginal and inferomarginal plate series. Terminal plate quadrate in outline, smooth with no accessories (no spines, granules, etc.) (Fig. 2C). Actinal plates imbricate, in 30–40 transverse rows in direct association with inferomarginal and adambulacral plates. Plates round but elongate, each with sharp, elongate spines, 2–4 per plate (Fig. 2D, E, F). Furrow spines, elongate with pointed tip, webbed (sometimes torn), 2–4 in palmate to straight series, subambulacral spines identically elongate with pointed tips and webbed, 2–4 per plate, set off from the furrow spine by a discrete space (Fig. 2D, F). Greatest number of furrow spines proximally with distalmost adambulacral plate showing fewest spines. Oral plates with furrow spines 5–12 at R=0.9 to R=1.5. At R=0.9, the paired oral spines projecting into the mouth are enlarged, approximately twice the length of the other oral plate furrow spines. Oral plates with pronounced ridge and enlarged central fissure between paired plates (Fig. 2D)., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 12-14, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Hurtado-Garcia, J. & Manjon-Cabeza, M. E. (2022) Species composition of sea stars (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) in the Patagonian Argentinian deep-sea including seven new records: connectivity with sub-Antarctic and Antarctic fauna. Polar Biology, 45, 1211 - 1228. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / s 00300 - 022 - 03056 - x"]}

Notioceramus neillae n. sp. FIGURE 11A–F Etymology The species epithet is named for Ms. Kate Neill, echinoderm researcher at the New Zealand Institute of Water and Atmosphere who has been instrumental in repatriation of US Antarctic Research Program specimens to the NMNH. Diagnosis Body stellate, arms tapering, triangular (Fig. 11A). Superomarginal plates with bald spot, variably small (Comments This is a second deep-water Notioceramus species, which appears to share more characters in common with Notioceramus anomalus. This latter, shallower species displays smooth, spherical granules on the abactinal and marginal plates as well as on the tips of actinal spines; in contrast, arms of Notioceramus neillae n. sp. are less robust and granules only finely spinose. Granules and actinal spination more weakly developed arms compared to either Notioceramus anomalus or Notioceramus abyssalis n. sp. Occurrence Weddell Sea, Antarctic Peninsula, 2324–3175 m. Description Body stellate (R/r=2.2–2.3), arms tapering, outline triangular, disk thick, strongly arched, Interradial arcs curved (Fig. 10A). Abactinal plates quadrate to irregular in shape, forming abutted mosaic, each with strongly tumid or convex surface (Fig. 11B). Surface of each plate covered by round granules, 2 to 12, mostly 6 to 10. Two granules counted along a 1.0 mm line. Plates heterogeneous, angular to round. Plates tend to be largest on disk with smallest distally along arms. Carinal series indistinct weakly defined, composed of irregular plates from disk to arm tip. Fasciolar grooves shallow but distinct. Madreporite oblong, round, flanked by two granule-covered plates (Fig. 10A. 1). Papular pores individual, discrete, paired along carinal plates on proximal arm region. No pedicellariae observed. Marginal plates 34 per interradius (arm tip to arm tip) with superomarginals slightly offset from inferomarginals forming a zigzag pattern at the contact between them. Superomarginals wide, especially interradially, forming distinct concave series onto the lateral edge of the disk’s abactinal surface (Fig. 11A, C). Spherical coarse granules, 10–50, typically numbering about 30–40. As with the abactinal granules, these are approximately 2 along a 1.0 mm line (at R= 3.9 cm). Superomarginals with a variably large bald, convex patch. Interradially bald patch absent from at least one plate but on others, it is small, round and irregularly shaped becoming larger on the arms becoming quadrate in shape, occupying entire central surface of superomarginal plates (Fig. 11C, D). Superomarginal plates, granulate, 20–30 present around plate periphery. Inferomarginal plates interradially wide becoming more quadrate distally (Fig. 11C). Inferomarginals follow convex curvature of superomarginal plate series onto lateral surface. Granules of identical size to those on abactinal and superomarginal surfaces, approximately 40–60, approximately 20–30 forming periphery around edge. Terminal plates large, shield shaped, approximately twice the size of adjacent superomarginals. Actinal plates in approximately 4 chevron-like series, plates quadrate. Surface of each plate with coarse, evenly spaced granules, 4 to 8 (Fig. 11C). Plates with shallow pronounced fasciolar groove. No pedicellariae observed. Furrow spines 2 or 3, thick, oval in cross-section, aligned in series.Three furrow spines on proximal adambulacral plates (Fig. 11F). Subambulacral spines at oblique angle to furrow spines, set off from furrow spines by distinct gap, two or three, thick, each quadrate in cross section, becoming more pronounced distally. Oral plates with four furrow spines, one larger spine projecting into mouth (two per interradius), Furrow spines thick and oval in cross-section (identical to other furrow spines) the main oral spine triangular in cross section. Oral plate surface with 5 thick blunt spines, quadrate in cross-section. Fissure between paired oral plates distinct. Based on notes included with USNM 1664380 this species was “brownish yellow” when collected. Material Examined Holotype. USNM 1018751, Southeast of Joinville Island, Antarctic Peninsula, Weddell Sea, −64.092, −52.475, 2324–2342 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 16 March 1964. 1 dry spec. R=3.9 r=1.8. Paratypes. USNM 1664380, South of Coronation Island, South Orkney Islands, Scotia Sea, −62.1883, −42.7217, 1228–1400 m. Coll. R/V Islas Orcadas, 20 Feb. 1976. 2 dry specs. R=3.3 r=1.5, R=3.3 r=1.4. USNM 1121183, Southern Ocean, Antarctica, −68.092, 173.683, 2608–3175 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 12 Jan. 1967. 1 dry spec. R=1.4 r=0.6., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 37-39, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240

Crossaster Müller & Troschel, 1840a Crossaster Müller & Troschel, 1840a: 103; 1840b: 318; Perrier 1875:272; Agassiz 1877: 98; Viguier 1879: 138; Bell 1881a: 140; Danielssen & Koren 1882: 51; Perrier 1896: 40; Fisher 1911: 389; Verrill 1914: 258; Fisher 1916: 447; Hayashi 1939: 297; 1940:186; Djakonov 1950: 71; H.E.S. Clark 1963: 55; Clark & Downey 1992: 296; McKnight 2006: 13. Solaster (Polyaster) Gray 1840: 183. Solaster (part) Fisher 1911: 389. Diagnosis Arms 8–15, disk broad. Abactinal skeleton openly reticulate with elongate paxillae, widely spaced. Spinelets pronounced and brush-like. Single series of marginals forming distinct periphery. Actinal plates confined to disk. (modified from Clark & Downey 1992) Comments Crossaster is a genus containing 10 species (Mah 2021) from cold-water and temperate water settings, including six species from Northern Hemisphere boreal habitats, one deep-sea species from the central Pacific and 3 species from high-latitude settings in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Pacific/North Atlantic species Crossaster papposus (Linnaeus, 1767) shows predatory habits with a wide range of prey, including gastropod and bivalve mollusks, cnidarians, and echinoderms (Jangoux 1982). Little is known regarding other Crossaster species although their feeding habits are likely comparable to those of Crossaster papposus. Historically, three species of Crossaster are reported from Southern Hemisphere high-latitude settings, Crossaster penicillatus Sladen, 1889 from South Africa and adjacent southern Indian Ocean settings (A.M. Clark 1962) and two South Pacific species, Crossaster campbellicus McKnight, 1973 and Crossaster multispinus H.L. Clark, 1916, which is also reported from the Kermadec Islands, the Campbell Plateau, and southeastern Australia (McKnight 2006). Herein, a further South Pacific species is described and another is synonymized. Key to Crossaster species at High-Latitudes (0) Abactinal paxillae, 20–40, inferomarginal paxillae each with 10–20 spines. Actinal plates bearing 10–15 spines.............................................................................................. Crossaster taitai n. sp. (0) Abactinal paxillae, 2–18 (mostly 2–5), inferomarginal paxillae with spines 8–30. Actinal plates with 2–4 spines.......... (1) (1) Subambulacral spines, 3–5 mostly 3–4. Superomarginals present, similar to abactinal paxillae and placed just above inferomarginals. Known only from New Zealand............................. Crossaster campbellicus McKnight, 1973 (1’) Subambulacral spines 5 to 8, mostly 7–8. Small ovoid superomarginals plates alternating with larger inferomarginals. Known from South Africa, Indian Ocean, Australia, New Zealand......................... Crossaster penicillatus Sladen, 1889

Astrotholus antarcticus (Fisher, 1940) FIGURE 1A–F Anseropoda antarctica Fisher, 1940: 149; Madsen 1955: 13; A.M. Clark 1962: 32 (key only); Bernasconi 1973a: 344. Diagnosis Body stellate (R/r=1.4–1.7), disk thick, strongly arched. Interradial arcs weakly curved to straight (Fig. 1A). Abactinal plates scalar, imbricate, covered by widely spaced truncate granuliform spinelets, 3 to 6, (Fig. 1B) distribution patterns associated with underlying plates. Superomarginals oval to quadrate with rounded edges in 1:1 relationship with inferomarginals. Superomarginals approximately twice to three times wider than inferomarginals, at least as viewed on the abactinal surface (Fig. 1C). Actinal plates with short, thorn-like spinelets, 2 to 5 (Fig. 1F). Furrow spines thorn-like, webbed 2 to 5 (6 indicated on the type) with spine number decreasing distally. Subambulacral spines, 2–5, webbed, arranged as an oblique comb relative to the furrow spines (Fig. 1D). Comments Except for a further occurrence of this species from the type locality (Madsen 1955), few accounts of this species have been reported since its original description (Fisher 1940). Species epithet has been changed to reflect change in genus name. Comment on Paratype USNM E10104 for Anseropoda antarctica Examination of USNM E10104, a paratype specimen for Anseropoda antarctica listed by Ahearn (1995) reveals that it is incorrectly identified and not part of the original type series as designated by Fisher (1940). The specimen displays the plate pattern and the continuous granulation that identifies Kampylaster incurvatus rather than Anseropoda antarctica. Fisher (1940) listed seven specimens as part of the original type series, all of which were confirmed in the Discovery collections at the British Museum of Natural History (J. Ablett, pers. comm.). Although Kampylaster incurvatus is reported in Fisher (1940), no specimens from the Clarence Island type locality were listed in his account bringing the locality data for USNM E10104 into doubt. Occurrence Bransfield Strait, Clarence Island, King George Island, Southern Ocean. 229 –426 m. Description Body shape stellate (R/r=1.4–1.7), body arched, disk thick, actinal surface concave, interradial arcs weakly curved to straight (Fig. 1A). Abactinal plates thin, scalar, imbricate with a curved external free edge (Fig. 1C). Larger round, polygonal plates proximally with two to three series of plates extending along the radial arm regions. Interradial plates elongate, in distinct series extending from radial abactinal plates to the superomarginal plates. Abactinal plate surface covered with evenly spaced truncate granuliform spinelets, 3 to 6 (Fig. 1B). Spinelets with fine tips, 4–6. Papular pores single present around proximal arm region and to approximately midway along the arm in single series, approximately 16 in the specimens examined (12 in the holotype). Madreporite quadrate to triangular, flanked by approximately four adjacent abactinal plates. Marginal plates 42–48 at R=1.4 and 1.8 respectively, imbricate. Superomarginals oval to quadrate with rounded edges in shape in 1:1 relationship with inferomarginals. Superomarginals approximately twice to three times wider than inferomarginals, at least when viewed from the abactinal surface (Fig. 1C). Inferomarginals, teardrop to ovate sitting at an oblique angle to the superomarginals (Fig. 1F). Both marginal plates imbricate arrangement forming a crenulated outline around the lateral edge of the body. A shallow trench formed at contact between superomarginal and inferomarginal series. Superomarginals and inferomarginals with 5–12 granuliform spinelets with fine tips, 4–6 similar to those on the abactinal plates. Actinal plates in regular oblique transverse series, approximately 42–48, each corresponding to inferomarginals and the adambulacral plate. Actinal plates with short, thorn-like spinelets, 2 to 5 (Fig. 1D, F). Furrow spines thorn-like, webbed 2 to 5 (6 indicated on the type) with spine number decreasing distally. Subambulacral spines, 2–5, webbed, arranged as an oblique comb relative to the furrow spines (Fig. 1D, F). Oral plates with 9–12 webbed furrow spines, 8 cited the holotype description. Oral plate with raised ridge, each half bearing 3–4 thorn-like spinelets (6 total per interradius). Central fissure wide., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 10-12, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Madsen, F. J. (1955) Echinoderms other than holothurians collected in sub-Antarctic and Antarctic Seas, mainly by the Norvegia- Expeditions 1928 - 1930. Scientific Results of the Norwegian Antarctic Expeditions 1927 - 1928, 37, 1 - 17.","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","Bernasconi, I (1973 a) Asteroideos Argentinos. 6. Familia Asterinidae. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales \" Bernardino Rivadavia \" e Instituto Nacional de Investigacion de las Ciencias Naturales, 3 (4), 335 - 346, 2 pls.","Ahearn, C. G. (1995) Catalog of the type specimens of seastars (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 572, 1 - 59. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 00810282.572"]}

Solaster regularis Sladen, 1889 FIGURE 24A–B, 25A–E Solaster regularis Sladen, 1889: 454; Fisher 1940: 178; Bernasconi 1973b: 287; Codoceo & Andrade 1978: 157, pl. 3; Clark & Downey 1992: 305; Larrain et al. 1999: 434–436; Stampanato & Jangoux 2004: 13–14; Sellanes et al. 2008: 1107; Mutschke & Mah 2009: 818; Frayasse et al. 2018: 2428–2429 l; Martinez et al. 2018: 24. Solaster regularis regularis Sladen, 1889: 454. Solaster subarcuatus Sladen, 1889: 455; D̂derlein 1927: 296. Solaster octoradiatus Ludwig, 1903: 25–27, Bell 1908: 11; 1917: 4; Jangoux & Massin 1986: 91. Solaster regularis subarcuatus Fisher 1940: 179–180; A.M. Clark 1962: 55; McKnight 1976: 28; Jangoux & Massin 1986: 91. Crossaster canopus H.E.S. Clark, 1963: 55 (syn. by McKnight 1976) Solaster longoi Stampanato & Jangoux, 1993: 181. Diagnosis Body stellate to strongly stellate, R/r= 2.4–5.2. Arms 7–10, mostly 8 or 9, shape highly variable, ranging from short, thick, arched with sharply tapering tips to arms elongate with gradual taper. Disk large with relatively large actinal intermediate region. Interradial arcs acute (Fig. 24A, D). Abactinal paxillae widely spaced, short with thick shaft, each bearing 6–10 spinelets with finely spinulose tips (Fig. 24B). Abactinal plates fenestrate in ordered series, variably transverse to more irregular adradially with openings between plates variably quadrate to irregular in shape depending on location, ranging from lateral arm series to disk. Papular pores large. Superomarginal plates similar or identical to abactinal plate, significantly smaller than inferomarginal plates which are approximately four to five times the size of the superomarginals (Fig. 24C). Inferomarginal plates paxillate with thick, robust shaft, widely spaced, each with wide surface bearing 4–30 short, robust spinelets, each with denticulate tips bearing finely spinose tips. Variably 15–48 inferomarginal paxillae (R=1.3 to R= 7.6 cm) present per arm (30–100 arm tip to arm tip). Actinal surface forming a V shape with dermis bearing numerous irregular to round plates bearing short spinelets, 4–6 (Fig. 24D). Adambulacral plates each round in shape, transversely oriented to tube foot grove, each plate separated by distinct tissue filled space. Furrow spines blunt, basally webbed, 3–5. Subambulacral spines, 4–5 in transverse series, elongate with blunt tips bearing finely spinose ends, spines arranged in single series along adambulacral plate forming weakly curve array along plate (Fig. 24E). Adambulacral spination sheathed in thin dermis. Mouth plates moderately large, furrow spines 8–10, with two largest spines projecting into mouth, suboral spines, on plate surface, 3–4. Color if life, variably solid orange, yellow or white. Synonymy of Solaster subarcuatu s (and subspecies) with Solaster regularis Further data from additional specimens does not provide any further evidence separating Solaster subarcuatus (and thus Solaster regularis subarcuatus) from Solaster regularis. Sladen’s (1889: 455–456) original description Solaster subarcuatu s (R=3.8, r= 1.2 cm) was characterized by nine arms, widely spaced abactinal paxillae with 5 or 6 spinelets, superomarginal paxillae indistinguishable from the abactinal plates, 26 prominent inferomarginal plates along each arm, each with a broad crown, bearing 8–12 spinelets, 3–4 furrow spines, and 4–5 subambulacral spines. At least one specimen (USNM E38601) corresponded to every character save the number of marginals along each arm. Fisher (1940: 179–180) observed the overall similarity between the two species reducing S. subarcuatus t o a subspecies of Solaster regularis, stating that the separation would be useful in keeping S. subarcuatus as the “Antarctic representative of S. regularis ”, as S. subarcuatus was described from near Kerguelen and the latter species described from Patagonia in the South Atlantic. These characters have all since been found to overlap or are consistent with those of Solaster regularis (Sladen 1889; Stampanato & Jangoux 1993). A.M. Clark (1962: 55) observed that the two species were practically indistinguishable, using only furrow spine length to diagnose them in her key additionally noting that “The spinelets …provide no reliable guide to the distinction of antarctic and subantarctic forms.” Stampanato & Jangoux (2004: 13) also noted that the two subspecies of Solaster regularis showed “mixed features” and that the subspecies could be “artificial.” Examination of additional specimens of Solaster arcuatus across its range suggests that it is highly variable, but none of Sladen’s (1889) characters consistently distinguish it from S. regularis. On this basis, I argue that Solaster arcuatus (and thus S. regularis arcuatus) should be placed into the synonymy of Solaster regularis., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 72-75, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Bernasconi, I. (1973 b) Los equinodermos colectados por el Walther Herwig en el Atlantico sudoeste. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales \" Bernardino Rivadavia \" e Instituto Nacional de Investigacion de las Ciencias Naturales, 3 (4), 287 - 334.","Codoceo, M. R. & Andrade, H. (1978) Asterozoos arquibentonicos de Chile Central. Anales del Museo de Historia Natural de Valparaiso, 11, 153 - 174.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Larrain, A., Mutschke, E., Riveros, A. & Solar, E. (1999) Preliminary report on Echinoidea and Asteroidea (Echinodermata) of the Joint Chilean-German-Italian Magellan \" Victor Hensen \" Campaign, 17 October - 25 November 1994. Scientia Marina, 63 (Supplement 1), 433 - 438. https: // doi. org / 10.3989 / scimar. 1999.63 s 1433","Stampanato, S. & Jangoux, M. (2004) The asteroid fauna (Echinodermata) of Marion and Prince Edward Islands. Annals of the South African Museum, 112 (1), 1 - 16.","Sellanes, J., Quiroga, E. & Neira, C. (2008) Megafauna community structure and trophic relationships at the recently discovered Concepcion Methane Seep Area, Chile, 36 ' S. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65, 1102 - 1111. https: // doi. org / 10.1093 / icesjms / fsn 099","Mutschke, E. & Mah, C. (2009) Asteroidea-Starfish. In: Haussermann, V. & F ˆ rsterra, G. (Eds.), Marine Benthic Fauna of Chilean Patagonia. Nature in Focus, Santiago, Chile, 1000 pp.","Frayasse, C., Calcagno, J. & Perez, A. F. (2018) Asteroidea of the southern tip of South America, including Namuncura Marine Protected Area at Burdwood Bank and Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina. Polar Biology, 41, 2423 - 2433. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / s 00300 - 018 - 2377 - 3","Martinez, A., Merino-Yunnissi, C. & Mutschke, E. (2018) A New Catalogue for the Echinoderms Housed in the Collection of Invertebrate Zoology Department at the National Museum of Natural History, Chile. Publicacion Ocasional del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Chile, 68, 1 - 88.","Ludwig, H. (1903) Seesterne. Resultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897 - 1898 - 1899. Rapports scientifiques, 1 - 72, 7 pls.","Bell, F. J. (1908) Echinoderma. National Antarctic Expedition, Natural History, 4, 1 - 15, pls. 1 - 5.","Bell, F. J. (1917) Echinoderma. 1. Actinogonidata. British Antarctic \" Terra Nova \" Expedition, 1910, Zoology, 4 (1), 1 - 10, 2 pls.","Jangoux, M. & Massin, C. (1986) Catalogue commente des type d'Echinodermes actuels conserves dans les collections nationales belges. Bulletin de l'Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique, Biologie, 56, 82 - 97.","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","McKnight, D. G. (1976) Asteroids from the Ross Sea and Baloney Islands. NZOI Records, 3 (4), 21 - 31.","Clark, H. E. S. (1963) The Fauna of the Ross Sea. Part 3. Asteroidea. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin, 151, 1 - 84.","Stampanato, S. & Jangoux, M. (1993) Les asterides (Echinodermata) de la Baie Breid (Cote de la Princesse Ragnhild, quartier Enderby, Antarctique), avec la description d'une nouvelle espece de Solaster. Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, 63, 175 - 184."]}

Solaster Forbes, 1839 Forbes, 1839: 120; Gray 1840: 183; Danielssen & Koren 1882: 50; Sladen 1889: 452; Perrier 1894: 151; Acloque 1900: 256; Fisher 1911: 306; Hayashi 1939: 297; 1940: 174; Djakonov 1950: 65; Bernasconi 1964: 258, 1970: 249; Clark & Downey 1992: 301. Diagnosis Arms 7 to 17. Abactinal skeleton composed of close-set cruciform or rounded plates (paxillae also referred to as pseudopaxillae) with non-penicillate spinelets. Papular pores single. Marginal plates paxillate in some species, disproportionately sized small superomarginals similar in stature to abactinal paxillae, inferomarginals, prominent, 3×–4× larger than abactinal paxillae, evenly spaced along arm length. Actinal plates spinose with multifid tips. Subambulacral spines forming distinct transverse fans. Furrow spines palmate, unwebbed. Comments A review of Solaster species from Stampanato & Jangoux (1993) with other species from outside the Antarctic region (e.g., Clark & Downey 1992), reveals that morphological boundaries for several species, especially those from deep-water habitats, are unclear with named species from disjunct and distant settings similar enough as to appear identical, earlier exemplified by the synonymy of Solaster dianae Stampanato & Jangoux 1993 with Solaster notophrynus Downey 1971 which occurs in tropical Atlantic deep-sea settings. Specimens of Solaster regularis subarcuatus Sladen, 1889, from the Ross Sea and adjacent regions are nearly identical with the deep-sea North Atlantic Solaster abyssicola Verrill 1885., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 71, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Forbes, E. (1839) On the Asteriadae of the Irish Sea. Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, 8, 114 - 129.","Gray, J. E. (1840) XXXII. A synopsis of the genera and species of the class Hypostoma (Asterias, Linnaeus). Annals of the Magazine of Natural History, 6, 175 - 184 + 275 - 290. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 03745484009443296","Danielssen, D. C. & Koren, J. (1882) Fra den norske Nordhavsexpedition, Echinodermer. Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, 27, 267 - 299.","Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Perrier, E. (1894) Stellerides. Expeditions Scientifique Travailleur et du Talisman, 3, 1 - 431, 26 pls.","Acloque, A. (1900) Faune de France contenant la description de toutes les especes indigenes- avec un preface par E. Perrier. Bailliere, Paris, 500 pp.","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76 (xiii), 1 - 420. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76. i","Hayashi, R. (1939) Solasterids in Japanese waters. Journal of the Faculty of Science of Hokkaido Imperial University, Zoology, 6, 297 - 311.","Hayashi, R. (1940) Contributions to the Classification of the sea-stars of Japan. I. Spinulosa. Journal of the Faculty of Imperial Science of Hokkaido University, 6 (7), 107 - 204.","Djakonov, A. M. (1950) Morskie Zvezdy Morei SSSR T U, 34, 1 - 203. [translated as Dyakonov, A. M. (1968) s. n. In: Strelkov, A. A. (Ed.), Sea stars (Asteroids) of the USSR Seas. Keys to the Fauna of the USSR. Vol. 34. Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Israel Program for scientific translations Ltd., Jerusalem, pp. 1 - 183.]","Bernasconi I. (1964) Asteroideos argentinos. Claves para los ordenes, familias, subfamilies y generos. Physis Buenos Aires, 24, 241 - 277.","Bernasconi, I. (1970) Equinodermos Antarticos. II. Asteroideos. 3. Asteroideos de la extremidad Norte de la Peninsula Antarctica. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales \" Bernardino Rivadavia \" e Instituto Nacional de Investigacion de las Ciencias Naturales, 9 (10), 211 - 281, 20 pls.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Stampanato, S. & Jangoux, M. (1993) Les asterides (Echinodermata) de la Baie Breid (Cote de la Princesse Ragnhild, quartier Enderby, Antarctique), avec la description d'une nouvelle espece de Solaster. Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, 63, 175 - 184.","Downey, M. (1971) A new species of the genus Solaster (Echinodermata; Asteroidea) from Martinique. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 84, 39 - 42.","Verrill, A. E. (1885) Results of the explorations made by the steamer Albatross off the northern coast of the United States in 1883. Reports of the US Fisheries Commission, 503 - 645 (1 - 142), pls. 10 - 21. [1883] https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 12059"]}

The Kampylasterinae:A new subfamily within the Asterinidae Kampylaster and Anseropoda were previously grouped together (see Spencer & Wright 1966) along with Mirastrella Fisher, 1940 within the Anseropodinae Fisher, 1906.Although a decisive placement was uncertain, A.M. Clark (1983) placed Mirastrella Fisher, 1940 with Leilaster A.H. Clark, 1938 in the Leilasteridae Jangoux & Aziz, 1988, separate from the Asterinidae. As discussed herein “ Anseropoda ” antarctica is separated from typological Anseropoda and thus, typological priority for the subfamily falls to the senior name, Kampylaster Koehler, 1920. Based on both 2-gene and 3-gene trees, Kampylaster Koehler, 1920 and “ Anseropoda ” (now Astrotholus n. gen.) antarctica were supported as constituting a monophyletic clade within a larger Asterinidae + Ganeriidae cluster (Mah & Foltz 2011b). Although the Kampylaster + “ Anseropoda ” clade was well supported (100% bootstrap) its precise relationship to other taxa was more ambiguous and was supported as the sister taxon to different groups within the larger cluster. Complimentary to the molecular data, morphological characters shared between the two genera are readily identified, supporting a consistent subgrouping, the Kampylasterinae nov. subfam. within the Asterinidae. This subfamily is added to the three currently established groups within the Asterinidae, the Asterininae, Ganeriinae and Hyalinothricinae as defined by Mah & Fujita (2020). Astrotholus and Kampylaster are similar in many respects, both lack superambulacral, transactinal, and superactinal plates, which are individually or partially present within most members of the Asterinidae (definition of terms follow O’Loughlin & Waters 2004). Genera such as Stegnaster Sladen, 1889 have been argued as showing affinities with members of the Kampylasterinae. However, there has been contention concerning placement. Fisher (1911) placed Stegnaster within the Anseropodinae, which apparently met with disagreement by Spencer & Wright (1966) who placed Stegnaster closer to Tremaster in the “ Tremasterinae.” Although Stegnaster is not supported in the molecular phylogeny (Mah & Foltz 2011b) as an adjacent sister taxon to Kampylaster and “ Anseropoda ” antarctica it was supported as a member of a wider clade containing these taxa based on the 2-gene tree but was not included in their 3-gene tree. Close affinity of Stegnaster with the “ Kampylasterinae ” is plausible, although further work remains. Tremaster has historically also been shown to display morphological affinities, but is morphologically distinguished from Kampylaster and Astrotholus n. gen. based on the strongly developed imbricate surface plates, four series of tube feet, the presence of unusual internal chambers, and furrow spines in transverse series. The two-gene tree by Mah & Foltz (2011b) also showed Tremaster as being phylogenetically distant from the “ Kampylaster clade.” Actinal intermediate plate patterns in Astrotholus n. gen. show similarity with the deep-water Paranepanthia platydisca (Fisher, 1913), the type species for Paranepanthia Fisher, 1917. in that two species of Astrotholus n. gen. both show transverse linear series which extend directly from the inferomarginal to the adambulacral plates. There is significant morphological disparity among Paranepanthia spp. and it is unclear if the deep-water species such as the typological P. platydisca forms a monophyletic group with shallow water forms such as Paranepanthia aucklandensis (Koehler, 1920). Two-gene trees (Mah & Foltz 2011b, fig. 2) have shown the clade containing the Ganeriinae as sister to the Kampylasterinae. Cycethra, Perknaster and Cuenotaster, as members of the Ganeriinae show fenestrate (Cycethra and Cuenotaster) or greatly reduced skeletons (Perknaster) and demonstrate very different marginal and actinal plate patterns as well as body shape than what is observed in either Kampylaster or Astrotholus n. gen. Members of the Hyalothricinae all share fenestrate skeletons bearing paxillar or glassine spinelets which are absent in Kampylaster and Astrotholus. Mah & Fujita (2020) and Mah & Foltz (2011b) returned the Ganeriinae to the Asterinidae (following Sladen 1889) and moved the Hyalothricinae to the Asterinidae. Key to genera of the Kampylasterinae Granules only- with round surface, spinelets never present, forming continuous cover, obscuring plate boundaries. Furrow spines in transverse to oblique orientation relative to tube foot furrow. Actinolateral edge, thick to rounded............................................................................................... Kampylaster Fisher, 1940 Granules or spinelets, forming clusters conforming to underlying plates which range from flat to distinctly mound-like. Furrow spines parallel with tube foot furrow. Actinolateral edge angular................................. Astrotholus nov. gen., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 8-9, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Spencer, W. K. & Wright, C. W. (1966) Asterozoans, Part U: Echinodermata. In: Moore, R. C. (Ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology 3, 1. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas, pp. U 4 - U 107.","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Fisher, W. K. (1906) The starfishes of the Hawaiian islands. Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, 23, 987 - 1130.","Clark, A. M. (1983) Notes on Atlantic Asteroidea. 3. Families Ganeriidae and Asterinidae. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History, Zoology, 30, 247 - 161. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. part. 28006","Clark, A. H. (1938) A new genus of starfishes from Puerto Rico. Smithsonian Miscellaneous collections, 91 (29), 1 - 7, 1 pl.","Jangoux, M. & Aziz, A. (1988) Les asterides (Echinodermata) recoltes autour de l'ile de la Reunion par le N. O.´Marion-Dufresne \" en 1982. Bulletin du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Zoologie, 4 (10), 631 - 650. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / p. 287593","Koehler, R. (1920) Echinodermata: Asteroidea. Scientific Reports of the Australiasian Antarctic Expedition, C 8, 1 - 308. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85380","Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Mah, C. & Fujita, T. (2020) New species and occurrence records of Japanese Solasteridae and Ganeriidae including a new species of Paralophaster from the North Pacific with an overview of Hyalinothrix. Zootaxa, 4750 (1), 67 - 100. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4750.1.4","O'Loughlin, P. M. & Waters, J. M. (2004) A molecular and morphological revision of genera of Asterinidae (Echinoderamta: Asteroidea). Memoirs of Museum Victoria, 61 (1), 1 - 40. https: // doi. org / 10.24199 / j. mmv. 2004.61.1","Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76 (xiii), 1 - 420. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76. i","Fisher, W. K. (1913) New starfishes from the Philippine Islands, Celebes, and the Moluccas. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 46, 201 - 224. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 00963801.46 - 2022.201","Fisher, W. K. (1917) A new genus and subgenus of East-Indian sea stars. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 8, 20 (116), 172 - 173. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 00222931709486986"]}

Astrotholus molginos n. gen, n. sp. FIGURE 4A–F Etymology The species epithet molginos refers to the Greek “of hide or skin” alluding to the dermis which covers the body surface of this species. Diagnosis Stellate body with R/r=1.2–2.0, abactinal plates imbricate, irregular on disk but showing strongly linear, transverse series interradially (Fig. 4A, B, D). Body surface covered by thin dermal tissue (Fig. 4D, E). Abactinal plates with 1–9, usually 2–4 short glassine spinelets with most arranged on the convex side of the imbricate plates (Fig. 4D, E), in single series interradially but in clusters elsewhere. Furrow spines 3 to 6 (at R= 2.2 cm), webbed in weakly palmate to straight series. Subambulacral spines two or three in a cluster standing apart from furrow spines, at transverse to oblique angle (Fig. 4F). Comments Astrotholus molginos n. gen. n. sp. appears to be the most morphologically dissimilar relative to the other species within Astrotholus n. gen. This is attributed to the flattened plates, as well as the dermis present on the abactinal surface and the relatively simple spination rather than the granuliform spinelets present in Astrotholus antarcticus (Fisher, 1940). This species shares the greatest morphological affinity with Astrotholus infernalis n. gen. n. sp. Occurrence Scotia Sea, South Atlantic, 2886–3876 m. Description Body stellate, R/r=1.2–2.0, disk strongly arched and centrally rising up above surface on arms triangular, interradial arcs weakly curved (Fig. 4A, B). Lateral edge thin and flat. No specimens found larger than R= 2.2 cm. Body surface covered with thin dermal tissue layer (Fig. 4A, B, D, E). Abactinal plates flat and round in outline, imbricate (Fig. 4B, D). Each plate with short glassine spinelets 1–9, mostly 2–4 located on proximal (non-imbricate) convex end of plate. Remainder of plate bare lacking accessories. Spinelets in clusters on most plates but arranged single file on interradial disk plate surfaces. Plates largest on disk and radial regions along arms, smallest distally on interradial regions on disk. Disk and radial arm plates in irregular arrangement in contrast to those interradially, which are present in ordered, transverse series from disk and radial arm plates to superomarginal plates (Fig. 4E). Interradial ordered plates more elongate than those on central disk region (Fig. 4B, D). Anus flanked by approximately four abactinal plates with spinelets directed over opening. Papulae in single pores, four to six, observed at base of arms and on disk but concealed by imbricate plates. Madreporite polygonal in shape with shallow sulci. No pedicellariae observed. Marginal plates form scalloped lateral edge around periphery of body, with distinct spacing present between plates (Fig. 4B, D, E). Superomarginals present on abactinal surface, inferomarginals on actinal surface. Superomarginal plates offset, alternating in series with transverse interradial plate series. At R=1.2, approximately 60 marginal plates are present in each interradius versus 40 per interradius at R= 0.9 cm. Superomarginals quadrate to round, flattened to convex with short spinelets, 1 to 4 present on surface. Inferomarginals round, offset contact with superomarginals. Inferomarginals 1:1 with actinal plate series, which are present in distinct, ordered linear series on actinal surface (Fig. 4F). Terminal plates large, approximately the size of 10 adjacent marginal plates, broadly triangular. Actinal intermediate areas forming distinct linear rows in each interradius with each actinal plate series showing direct correspondence between the inferomarginal plates to an adambulacral plate (Fig. 4C). Each actinal plate round, imbricate, covered by a thin dermal tissue. Each plate with spinelets, 1 to 3 with greatest number proximally. Furrow spines webbed, 3 to 6 (at R=0.8 to 2.2) highest number proximally decreasing distally (Fig. 4F). Furrow spines in more palmate curve proximally becoming nearly straight midway to distally along arm. Subambulacral spines two or three in a cluster standing apart from furrow spines, at transverse to oblique angle (Fig. 4F). Oral plates prominent with raised central ridge, furrow spines on oral plates, 7 to 8. Fissure between oral plates well developed. Living color unknown., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 17-19, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306."]}

Paralophaster versus Lophaster Mah & Foltz (2011b) included three Paralophaster species, P. antarcticus, P. godfroyi, and P. lorioli in their molecular phylogenetic overview of the Valvatida. Although these three species clustered together on both two-gene and three-gene trees, as part of a single lineage, Lophaster densus was also supported. This has resulted in further study of the diagnostic characters that separate Lophaster and Paralophaster. Lophaster has been historically characterized by the possession of distinct, more elongate, and larger marginal paxillae (i.e., marginal plates that are paxillae-like in shape), especially the superomarginal paxillae, which are clearly distinguished from the abactinal paxillae in Lophaster. This is contrasted with Paralophaster that was originally characterized by Fisher (1940: 175) as simply having “undifferentiated” superomarginals but has undergone redefinition to being similar in size or more precisely as being “…hardly if at all, larger than the abactinal paxillae” (e.g.,A.M. Clark 1962: 80). Fisher (1940) also described the genus Myoraster to accommodate Lophaster antarcticus which he argued was distinctive based on actinolateral muscle bands, in comparison to Lophaster densus which was lacking Myoraster ’s muscle bands. A.M. Clark (1962) synonymized the genus Myoraster transferring Lophaster antarcticus to Paralophaster. Paralophaster has been reported from further occurrence (e.g., Presler & Figielska 1997) and environmental accounts (e.g., McClintock et al. 2011) with no further taxonomic/systematic overviews other than the recently described Paralophaster from deep-sea North Pacific settings near Japan (Mah & Fujita 2020). Phylogenetic analysis of the Valvatacea (Mah & Foltz 2011b), included three Paralophaster species, P. godfroyi, P. lorioli, and P. antarcticus as well as the Antarctic Lophaster densus. All four taxa were supported on a single clade, supporting the Solasteridae, by two-gene and three-gene trees. The key diagnostic character for Paralophaster is based upon Fisher’s (1940) diagnosis which describes “undifferentiated” superomarginal plates. The description of this character has undergone modification by A.M. Clark (1962) and H.E.S. Clark (1963) as superomarginal plates which are similar or identical to the abactinal plates in size. Based on observations of Lophaster specimens, the marginal plates show two relatively thick and elongate paxillar heads which are variably articulated or show fusion at the basal portion of each plate. This appears to be a consistent character of marginal plates among Lophaster species. Paralophaster in P. godfroyi, P. antarcticus, and P. densus when clearly present appear to be shorter and smaller overall than the inferomarginals, but closer in appearance to the abactinal paxillae. Marginal paxillae in Lophaster appear to be a function of size, length and wide spacing versus those in Paralophaster which are smaller, shorter and more crowded. Marginal Plates in Paralophaster Blake’s (1978) criterion defined the marginal plate series as extending from the primary on the disk to the terminal plate on the arm. Identification of plates as superomarginal versus inferomarginal plate series was based on their relative position, with the inferomarginal series identified based on its proximity to the adambulacral plate series. Marginal plate characters show two primary trends in Paralophaster, those with only a single prominent marginal plate series and those showing two, including clearly defined superomarginals. In both instances, it is assumed that both series are present but that there is some degree of character modification to the superomarginal and/or inferomarginal series. In the former, there is only a single prominent series which, based on location and position is thought to be an enlarged inferomarginal series. A.M. Clark (1962) interpreted this as superomarginal plates which were essentially identical with the abactinal paxillae but very weakly expressed or jumbled, such as in Paralophaster lorioli. Paralophaster paucispinus n. sp. displays a more extreme case with a seemingly incomplete or possibly absent superomarginal plate series. In the other Paralophaster, there is a well-developed, observable series of superomarginals that are present on the abactinal surface above and either adjacent or alternating with the inferomarginal plates, such as in P. godfroyi, P. hyalinus, P. antarcticus and P. densus. In these latter species, larger specimens (>R=3.0 cm) such as those of Paralophaster godfroyi, the paxillar base of the presumptive superomarginal plates were directly articulated on the surface of the trunk of the larger inferomarginal paxillae in a manner identical to those on other solasterids, such as Lophaster gaini. In Paralophaster antarcticus, superomarginal paxillae were observed as a separate series, intercalated above and between the larger inferomarginal series. Key to the Species of Paralophaster (0) Abactinal, marginal paxillae with abundant fine spinelets, 20 to 40. Abactinal surface with close-set paxillae presenting an almost brushy, fuzzy appearance (Fig. 18A, B, D). Marginal plates number 20–45 per arm side, (40–80 per interradius) close-set. Superomarginal paxillae present intercalated between larger inferomarginals and distinctly larger (2–4×) than abactinal paxillae (Fig. 18D).................................................................................... (1) (0’) Abactinal, marginal paxillae with fewer spinelets, 3 to 25, mostly 10–14 (e.g., Fig. 22A, C). Marginal plates 13–26 per arm side. Superomarginal paxillae either inconspicuous or absent, only a single prominent series, the inferomarginals, present along each arm................................................................................................ (2) (1) Body more strongly stellate with elongate arms R/r= 2.0–4.0 at R=1.0–16.0 cm. Superomarginals similar or identical to abactinal paxillae (Fig. 18).................................................... Paralophaster antarcticus (Koehler, 1912a) (1’) Body more weakly stellate with short, triangular arms R/r=2.53 at R= 1.9 cm (Fig. 19). Superomarginals present/alternating with inferomarginals...................................................... Paralophaster densus (Fisher, 1940) (2) Subambulacral spines with serrations, either along the sides or the upper top of the spine (Fig. 22F, G). Marginal paxillae 9–18 per arm side at R=2.0–4.0.............................................................................. (3) (2’) Subambulacral spines might have rough surface, but without serrations (Fig. 23F). Marginal paxillae 13–30 per arm side at R=1.7 to 4.1......................................................................................... (4) (3) Subambulacral spines with 7–12 thorny serrations along the shaft (Fig. 22F, G). Abactinal paxillae relatively short, squat with spinelets, 10–25, emerging from plate near the body surface, each with 1–3 pointed tips (Fig. 22D, E). Superomarginal plates absent or weakly present. A single prominent series of marginal paxillae present (Fig. 22C, D, E). Individuals found to brood juveniles in coelom. Fig. 22B............................................... Paralophaster lorioli (Koehler, 1907) (3’) Subambulacral spines more weakly developed thorny serrations, 3–5 at the tip of each spine. Abactinal paxillae with elongate shaft, hyaline spinelets, 8–25 with single to bifid-tipped (i.e., fork-like) points. Superomarginal and inferomarginal paxillae both evident, similar in scale, inferomarginals, thicker than superomarginals.... Paralophaster hyalinus H.E.S. Clark, 1970b (4) Abactinal paxillae, relatively low and stout with spinelets 2 to 4 (Fig. 23B). Marginal paxillae 14–16 per arm side at R=2.6 (Fig. 23D, E). Each marginal paxillae with 4–10 spinelets (Fig. 23F). Known only from the holotype.................................................................................................. Paralophaster paucispinus n. sp. (4’) Abactinal paxillae with numerous spinelets, 4–25, shaft variably elongate and narrow to short and thick. Marginal paxillae 13–23 per arm side, from R=1.7 to 4.1. Marginal paxillae with 8–30 spinelets..................................... (5) (5) Abactinal paxillae slender and elongate with spinelets, 4–10 as long as the shaft on which they sit (Fig. 21B). Actinal plates 4–10, slender. No brooded juveniles. Arms long and strap-like, R/r=2.3–4.1. Historical depth range: 70−2040 m.............................................................................. Paralophaster godfroyi (Koehler 1912a) (5’) Abactinal paxillae short and thick with spinelets 10–25, longer than the shaft on which they sit (Fig. 20B). Actinal plates one or two (Fig. 20C, F). Brooded juveniles enclosed by pouch in coelom (Fig. 20D, E). Arms short, triangular, R/r=1.7−3.0. Known from 2000−4000 m................................................................ Paralophaster ferax n. sp., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 56-57, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","Presler, P. & Figielska, E. (1997) New data on the Asteroidea of Admiralty Bay, King George Island, South Shetland Island. Polish Polar Research, 18 (2), 107 - 117. https: // doi. org / 10.2478 / v 10183 - 011 - 0022 - 8","McClintock, J. B, Amsler, M. O., Angus, R. O., Challener, R. C., Schram, J. B. Amsler, C. D., Mah ,, C. L. & Baker, B. J. (2011) The Mg- Calcite composition of Antarctic echinoderms: important implications for predicting the impacts of ocean acidification. Journal of Geology, 119 (5), 457 - 466. https: // doi. org / 10.1086 / 660890","Mah, C. & Fujita, T. (2020) New species and occurrence records of Japanese Solasteridae and Ganeriidae including a new species of Paralophaster from the North Pacific with an overview of Hyalinothrix. Zootaxa, 4750 (1), 67 - 100. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4750.1.4","Clark, H. E. S. (1963) The Fauna of the Ross Sea. Part 3. Asteroidea. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin, 151, 1 - 84.","Blake, D. B. (1978) The taxonomic position of the modern sea-star Cistina Gray, 1840. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 91 (1), 234 - 241.","Koehler, R. (1912 a) Echinodermes (Asteries, Ophiures et Echinides). In: Deuxieme Expedition Antarctique Francaise 1908 - 1910 J. Charcot. Masson et cie, Paris, pp. 1 - 277. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85347","Koehler, R. (1907) Asteries et Echinides recueillis dans les mers australes par la Scotia (1902 - 1904). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 32 (6), 140 - 147.","Clark, H. E. S. (1970 b) A new species of Paralophaster (Asteroidea) from New Zealand. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Biological Sciences, 12 (15), 177 - 179."]}

Odontaster meridionalis (Smith, 1876) FIGURE 13A–E Astrogonium meridionalis Smith, 1876: 109. Pentagonaster meridionalis Smith 1879: 276. Gnathaster meridionalis Sladen 1889: 287. Odontaster meridionalis Fisher 1940: 99; A.M. Clark 1962: 15; H.E.S. Clark 1963: 34; Guille 1974: 32. Diagnosis Body weakly stellate to stellate, R/r=1.6–2.25. Disk broad, arms triangular. Interradial arcs weakly curved to straight (Fig. 13A, C). Fasciolar groove present between abactinal, marginal, actinal plates, well-developed. Abactinal surface covered by paxillate plates (Fig. 13B). Plate bases quadrilobate. Plates arranged in serial rows along arm, extending to arm tip. Each plate with spinelets, 12–25 per plate, spinelets, each with a pointed tip, spinelets largest centrally on paxillar surface. Marginal plates wide 20–28, arm tip to arm tip, quadrate, in shape, covered by 20–30 spinelets, widely spaced (Fig. 13A). Actinal plates in 5–7 chevron-like series, each plate quadrate in shape, covered by spinelets, rough, “thorny” tipped (Fig. 13D). Furrow spines pointed, 3–4 in straight series with median spines tallest, subambulacral spines 7–9 arranged irregularly (Fig. 13E). Oral plates each with a single distinct recurved hyaline tipped spine, furrow spines 6–8, suboral spines 5–6. Comments These records show further occurrence of a species known previously from relatively shallow settings (Occurrence Circumpolar, including South Georgia, Marion Island, 0–646 m (following A.M. Clark 1962). New Depth Occurrence: 1772–2907 m. Material Examined USNM 1083015, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, −75.817, −168.867, 2049–2089 m. Coll, R/V Eltanin, 3 Feb. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=2.1 r=1.1. USNM 1091164, Victoria Land, Southern Ocean, −72.442, 177.133, 1883–1890 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 12 Feb. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=1.6 r=0.9, R=1.5 r=0.8, R=1.1 r=0.6. USNM 1091165, Victoria Land, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, −72.958, 174.408, 1772–1775 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 11 Jan. 1968. 1 dry spec. R=1.9 r=0.9. USNM 1091167, Southern Ocean, −73.317, −174.875, 2897–2907 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 9 Feb. 1968. 7 dry specs. R=2.2 r=1.1, R=1.8 r=0.9, R=2.0 r=0.9, R=1.6 r=0.7, R=1.4 r=0.7, R=1.0 r=0.6, R=1.2 r=0.6. USNM 1091180, Southern Ocean, −74.933, −174.233, 2022–2060 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 7 Feb. 1968. 2 dry specs. R=2.2 r=1.2, R=2.4 r=1.3. USNM 1121140, Victoria Land, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, −70.917, 171.992, 2273 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 13 Jan. 1967. 1 dry spec. R=2.0 r=1.1. USNM 1123078, Ross Sea, Southern Ocean, −74.875, −174.933, 2143–2154 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 27 Jan. 1967. 1 dry spec. R=7.4 r=3.7. NHM-BAS specimen 1, Scotia Sea, −60.0459333, −29.97751667, 2397 m. Coll. British Antarctic Survey. 1 wet spec. R=3.7 r=1.7. NHM-BAS specimen 2, Kemp Seamount caldera, Scotia Sea, −59.6988, −28.352016, 1451 m. Coll. British Antarctic Survey. 1 wet spec. R=3.3 r=1.5., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 42, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Smith, E. A. (1876) Descriptions of species of Asteridae and Ophiuridae from Kerguelen Islands. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 4, 17 (98), 105 - 113. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 00222937608681912","Smith, E. A. (1879) Echinodermata of Kerguelen Island. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 168, 270 - 281. https: // doi. org / 10.1098 / rstl. 1879.0029","Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","Clark, H. E. S. (1963) The Fauna of the Ross Sea. Part 3. Asteroidea. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin, 151, 1 - 84.","Guille, A. (1974) Echinodermes: Asterides et Ophiurides. In: Grua, P. (Ed.), Invertebres de l'infralittoral rocheux dans l'Archipel de Kerguelen. 3. CNFRA 35. Impression Internationales, Paris, pp. 32 - 44."]}

Paralophaster ferax n. sp. FIGURE 20A–F Etymology The species epithet ferax is Latin for fertile or fruitful, alluding to the brooding behavior found in this species. Diagnosis Body shape weakly stellate (R/r=1.7), arms short, triangular, disk large (Fig. 20A, C). Body thickened. Interradial arcs weakly curved. Largest R= 2.5 cm. Abactinal plates paxillate, each with spines, 10–25, each bearing pointed, jagged hyaline tips (Fig. 20B). Plates separated by membranous skin. Marginal plates 26–28 per interradius (13–14 per arm), widely spaced, single series of marginals observed, superomarginals not clearly discerned, these either weakly expressed or irregular. Marginal plates are large, paxillate with trunk-like shaft, head of paxilla with curved head, each bearing spines, 8–30 on plate surface. Actinal region small, with 1–4 small, round plates, each bearing 1–3 spinelets. Furrow spines, 2–4, palmate arrangement with basal webbing (Fig. 20F). Subambulacral spines two, decreasing to a single spine distally along arm, arranged transversely on adambulacral plate. Oral plates with 10 furrow spines, no suboral plates. No pedicellariae. Brooded juveniles in coelomic cavity (Fig. 20D, E). Comments This species displays closest resemblance to Paralophaster paucispinus n. sp. with which it shares a similarly low number of marginal plates, approximately 13–14 per arm, a single discernible marginal series with no clear superomarginal plates, similar numbers of furrow spines and a similar overall body shape. It differs in having significantly more abactinal spines, 10–25 versus 3–5 in P. paucispinus and in having abactinal paxillae with lobate rather than round bases in P. paucispinus. There are also more spines on the marginal paxillae, 8–30, than are on P. paucispinus, which only shows 4–10. Occurrence Scotia Sea, 3138–4429 m. Description Body weakly stellate (R/r=1.6–2.22), arms short, triangular in shape, disk large. Body strongly thickened. Interradial arcs weakly curved (Fig. 20A, C). Surface covered with membranous skin. Abactinal plates paxillate with spines, 10–25, each with pointed, jagged hyaline tips, shaft short, stocky (Fig. 20B). Spinelets triangular in cross-section. Paxillae, widely spaced, each with 3–5 lobes radiating at base forming open papular spaces between plates which are filled with thin membranous skin. These skin-filled spaces widest proximally on disk but become arranged more closely together distally. Madreporite diamond shaped, raised with irregular sulci. No pedicellariae. Marginal plates 20–28 per interradius (13–14 per arm), widely spaced, single series of marginals observed (Fig. 20C), superomarginals not clearly discerned, these either weakly expressed or irregular. Marginal plates are large, paxillate with trunk-like shaft, head of maxilla with curved head, each bearing spines, 8–30 on plate surface. Paxillar spines similar to those on abactinal paxillae, slender hyaline tipped with multiple tips, triangular in cross-section. Actinal surface relatively small, limited only to disk (Fig. 20C). Marginal plates (possibly inferomarginals?) along arm in direct contact with adambulacral plates. Actinal intermediate region small, filled with membranous dermis bearing small plates, 1–4, present on actinal intermediate region round to irregular, bearing slender spines, 1–4. Adambulacral plates lobate in shape, with distinct, skin-filled gap between each plate. Furrow spines, 2–4, palmate arrangement with basal webbing. Subambulacral spines two, decreasing to a single spine distally along arm, arranged transversely on adambulacral plate (Fig. 20F). Oral plates pronounced with furrow spines, 10, blunt, widely spaced. Center of oral plate with distinct ridge on either side of central fossae. No spines present on oral plate surface. Brooded juveniles. USNM 1675790 and 1676505 contain brooded juveniles in their coelomic cavity (Fig. 20D, E), enclosed within tissue, these occur directly above the oral region. Approximately 8–10 individuals, most with R=3.0 mm, r= 0.5 mm. Actinal surface facing upward towards abactinal surface of adult. Furrow spines, 1 or 2, subambulacral spines 2, both with hyaline, finely denticulate tips. Inferomarginal plates mound-like with hyaline spines, 3–6, bearing denticulate tips. Abactinal plates, including presumptive superomarginals identical. Material Examined Holotype. USNM 1675790, East of South Georgia Island, Scotia Sea, South Atlantic, −56.033, −33.967, 3138– 3239 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 8 Sept. 1963. 1 dry spec. R=1.7 r=1.0 (contains brooded juveniles). Paratype. USNM 1675789, East of South Georgia Island, Scotia Sea, South Atlantic, −56.033, −33.967, 3138– 3239 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 8 Sept. 1963. 2 dry specs. R=1.7 r=1.0, R=1.7 r=1.0 (no brooding). USNM 1676503, Southern Ocean, −64.75, −82.53, 4429 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, USAP, 27 Oct. 1963. 1 dry spec. R=2.0 r=0.9 (no brooding). USNM 1676504, South Georgia Island, Scotia Sea, South Atlantic, −55.092, −39.842, 2886–3040 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, USAP, 8 Feb. 1966. 1 dry spec. R=1.9 r=0.7, R=1.7 r=0.7, R=2.0 r=0.9, R=2.0 r=0.6, R=1.3 r=0.4 (no brooding). USNM 1676505, South Georgia Island, Scotia Sea, South Atlantic, −55.092, −39.842, 2886–3040 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, USAP, 8 Feb. 1966. 1 dry spec. R=1.9 r=0.7. (brooding specimen). USNM 1676568, South Atlantic, −54.925, −14.842, 3947–4063 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 28 Feb. 1966. 1 dry spec. R=2.5 r=0.9 (no brooding). USNM 1676577, South Atlantic Ocean, −54.925, −14.842, 3947–4063 m. Coll. R/V Eltanin, 28 Feb. 1966. 1 dry spec. R=1.2 r=0.4 (no brooding). USNM 1676578, NE of Candlemas Island, South Sandwich Islands, Scotia Sea, South Atlantic. Coll. John Dearborn et al. R/V Islas Orcadas, 22 May 1975. 3 wet specs. R=2.3 r=1.0, R=2.1 r=1.0, R=1.2 r=0.6 (no broodingbut gametes present)., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on pages 62-64, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240

Lophaster Verrill, 1878 Verrill, 1878: 214; Danielssen & Koren 1882: 440; Sladen 1889: 460; Ludwig 1900: 467; Fisher 1911: 334; Koehler 1921: 143; Djakonov 1950: 63; H.E.S. Clark 1963: 61; Bernasconi 1964: 258; Clark & Downey 1992: 299. Sarkaster Ludwig, 1905: 185. Diagnosis Arms five, cylindrical in cross-section, interradial arcs acute. Abactinal skeleton reticulate, papular areas with multiple pores. Abactinal plates paxillate. Marginal plates in two series, composed of distinct paxillae, larger than adjacent abactinal plates. One series of actinal plates, extending along arm in most species. Comments The re-discovery of Lophaster abbreviatus Koehler, 1908 brings the total number of high-latitude Lophaster species to four (A.M. Clark 1962) including L. gaini Koehler, 1912b, L. stellans Sladen, 1889 (with the subspecies L. stellans marionis), and L. tenuis Koehler, 1920. Three species have now been recorded from the North Pacific, off the coast of Japan (Mah & Fujita 2020). Mah and Foltz (2011b) sampled several high-latitude Solasteridae, from both hemispheres including what is nominally Lophaster densus Fisher, 1940. Their results placed this species among members of the genus Paralophaster. It is herein reassigned, but further sampling and testing are desirable., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 51, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Verrill, A. E. (1878) Art. XX. Notice of recent additions to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of North America. No. 1. American Journal of Science and Arts, Series 3, 16, 91 - 96 + 207 - 215. https: // doi. org / 10.2475 / ajs. s 3 - 16.93.207","Danielssen, D. C. & Koren, J. (1882) Fra den norske Nordhavsexpedition, Echinodermer. Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, 27, 267 - 299.","Sladen, W. P. (1889) Asteroidea. Report of the Scientific Results of H. M. S. Challenger, 30, 1 - 893.","Ludwig, H. (1900) Arktische Seesterne. Fauna Arctica, 1 (3), 447 - 502.","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76 (xiii), 1 - 420. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76. i","Koehler, R. (1921) Echinodermes. Faune de France. Vol. 1. Librairie de la Faculte des Sciences, Paris, 216 pp.","Djakonov, A. M. (1950) Morskie Zvezdy Morei SSSR T U, 34, 1 - 203. [translated as Dyakonov, A. M. (1968) s. n. In: Strelkov, A. A. (Ed.), Sea stars (Asteroids) of the USSR Seas. Keys to the Fauna of the USSR. Vol. 34. Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Israel Program for scientific translations Ltd., Jerusalem, pp. 1 - 183.]","Clark, H. E. S. (1963) The Fauna of the Ross Sea. Part 3. Asteroidea. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin, 151, 1 - 84.","Bernasconi I. (1964) Asteroideos argentinos. Claves para los ordenes, familias, subfamilies y generos. Physis Buenos Aires, 24, 241 - 277.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Ludwig, H. (1905) Asteroidea. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, 32, vii - xii, 292 pp., pls.","Koehler, R. (1908) Asteries, Ophiures et Echinides de l'Expedition antarctique nationale ecossaise. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 46, 529 - 649. https: // doi. org / 10.1017 / S 008045680000380 X","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70.","Koehler, R. (1912 b) Echinoderms nouveaux recueillis dans les mers antarctiques par le \" Pourquoi Pas? \" (Asterias, Ophiures et Echinides). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 39 (4), 151 - 163.","Koehler, R. (1920) Echinodermata: Asteroidea. Scientific Reports of the Australiasian Antarctic Expedition, C 8, 1 - 308. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85380","Mah, C. & Fujita, T. (2020) New species and occurrence records of Japanese Solasteridae and Ganeriidae including a new species of Paralophaster from the North Pacific with an overview of Hyalinothrix. Zootaxa, 4750 (1), 67 - 100. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4750.1.4","Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306."]}

Mah, Christopher L. (2023): New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea). Zootaxa 5310 (1): 1-88, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1

Kampylaster Koehler, 1920 Koehler, 1920: 136, Fisher 1940: 250; Bernasconi 1973a: 344; A.M. Clark 1993: 220; O’Loughlin & Waters 2004: 22. Diagnosis Arms five. Body thick, pentagonal to weakly stellate (R/r=1.0–2.2), strongly arched (dome-shaped). Abactinal surface composed of imbricate flattened to weakly convex plates, larger plates proximally becoming smaller distally. Abactinal and marginal plates covered by round to cylindrical/bullet-shaped granules, evenly distributed over abactinal and lateral surface covering boundaries between plates. Marginal plates forming crenulate margin. Actinal surface with one to three short, blunt spinelets. Furrow spines, 2 to 5 in transverse series. Superambulacrals and superactinal plates absent. Comments Kampylaster has received little discussion since its description (Koehler 1920), which seems largely due to its lack of shared characters with other members of the Asterinidae, including internal skeletal ossicles such as the superambulacrals and superactinals (O’Loughlin & Waters 2004). Koehler (1920) made early comparisons between Kampylaster and Tremaster which have not found support (O’Loughlin & Waters 2004; Mah & Foltz 2011b). Molecular phylogenetic work (Mah & Foltz 2011b) supported Kampylaster with the other Antarctic asterinid, Astrotholus antarcticus as members of a monophyletic clade, described herein. Key to Kampylaster spp. (0) Marginal plates and lateral edge with round to cylindrical granules in irregular clusters, inferomarginal plates with rounded, actinolateral edge with round, close-set granules extending onto the distal actinal intermediate areas adjacent to the inferomarginals. Granules round, homogeneous in size and shape, close set. Body weakly stellate (R/r=1.0 at R=1.1.7)). Present at depths 6–935 m....................................................... Kampylaster incurvatus Koehler 1920 (0’) Inferomarginal plates with distinct spine series, cylindrical or bullet-shaped, 2–3× the length of those on abactinal granules in K. tumulus, along actinolateral edge. Inferomarginals with a more angular lateral edge present. Granules more cylindrical, not spherical, more widely spaced, heterogeneous or homogeneous in size. Present at depths 1000–3020 m................ (1) (1) Inferomarginal with three bullet-shaped granules (2 in smaller individuals), approximately twice the length of abactinal granules. Body strongly stellate (R/r=~2.0–2.5), with arching disk narrowing on arms. At R=1.3, granules relatively fine, 5–6 granules along a 1.0 mm line, heterogeneous in size, some twice as large as others, widely spaced, throughout, especially on disk edge and distal actinal intermediate areas adjacent to the inferomarginals. Arm tips pointed...................................................................................................... Kampylaster claireae n. sp. (1’) Inferomarginal with four to seven quadrate shaped granules at R=~ 1.5 in distinct series, 2–3 times the length of those on abactinal granules. Body thick, weakly stellate (R/r=~1.6). Granules coarse, approximately 3 along a 1.0 mm line (R=1.5), homogeneous in size, all relatively identical in size, shape. Arm tips rounded................ Kampylaster tumulus n. sp., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 22, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Koehler, R. (1920) Echinodermata: Asteroidea. Scientific Reports of the Australiasian Antarctic Expedition, C 8, 1 - 308. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 85380","Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Bernasconi, I (1973 a) Asteroideos Argentinos. 6. Familia Asterinidae. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales \" Bernardino Rivadavia \" e Instituto Nacional de Investigacion de las Ciencias Naturales, 3 (4), 335 - 346, 2 pls.","Clark, A. M. (1993) An index of names of recent Asteroidea. Part 2. Valvatida. E chinoderm Studies, 4, 187 - 366. https: // doi. org / 10.1201 / 9781003072553 - 4","O'Loughlin, P. M. & Waters, J. M. (2004) A molecular and morphological revision of genera of Asterinidae (Echinoderamta: Asteroidea). Memoirs of Museum Victoria, 61 (1), 1 - 40. https: // doi. org / 10.24199 / j. mmv. 2004.61.1","Mah, C. L. & Foltz D. W. (2011 b) Molecular Phylogeny of the Valvatacea (Asteroidea, Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 161, 769 - 788. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x"]}

Notioceramus Fisher, 1940 Notioceramus Fisher, 1940: 119; Mah 2011: 32. Diagnosis Body stellate. Abactinal, marginal, and actinal surface densely covered by large, coarse, hemispherical granules that nearly obscure plate boundaries. Body wall thin, parchment like. Marginal plates with lateral facing. Furrow spines two to three, subambulacrals large. Comments The two new species of Notioceramus described here were collected from substantially deeper habitats than the type species, Notioceramus anomalus Fisher, 1940, which has been recorded primarily from 342–750 m (Fisher 1940; A.M. Clark 1962). In contrast, the new species described herein Notioceramus abyssalis n. sp. and Notioceramus neillae n. sp. were collected from abyssal depths (2324–3876 m). A trend in the degree to which features were calcified was observed between the deepest and shallowest species. The deepest occurring individuals of Notioceramus abyssalis n. sp. showed more tapering arms, granules with spinose surfaces, fewer granules overall, more rough-tipped actinal spines, and more weakly developed abactinal and marginal plates. This contrasted with Notioceramus anomalus which showed greater numbers of perfectly spherical granules, more stout arms, and more strongly calcified abactinal and marginal plates. Notioceramus neillae n. sp. appeared intermediate between the two. However only two individuals of N. neillae n. sp. were available. It is difficult to assess the polarity of these morphological trends without a full phylogenetic assessment of Notioceramus and its sister taxa and as such, difficult to conclude whether the derived species shows accentuated calcification or decalcification of the endoskeleton and its accessories. Based on affinities outlined below, both shallow and deep-water sister taxa are plausible making an assessment difficult without further information., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2023, New Genera, Species, and observations on the biology of Antarctic Valvatida (Asteroidea), pp. 1-88 in Zootaxa 5310 (1) on page 33, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5310.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/8090240, {"references":["Fisher, W. K. (1940) Asteroidea. Discovery Reports, 20, 69 - 306.","Clark, A. M. (1962) Asteroidea. B. A. N. Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929 - 1931, B 9, 68 - 70."]}

Mah, Christopher L. (2022): New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition. Zootaxa 5164 (1): 1-75, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1

Evoplosoma Fisher 1906 Fisher 1906: 1065; Koehler 1909: 96; Spencer & Wright 1966: U58; Clark & Downey 1992: 241; A.M. Clark 1993: 253; Mah et al., 2010: 278; Mah 2015a: 2. Diagnosis (from Mah, 2015a). Body strongly stellate. Arm narrow, elongated. R/r ranges from 2.3–4.11 (most between 3.0–4.0). Interradial arcs straight to weakly curved. Abactinal plates, flat and platform-like. Carinal series poorly distinguished. Abactinal plates tightly articulated. Body covered by tissue layer with pulpy texture that overlies plates and spines (seen more clearly in wet specimens). Prominent spines on abactinal, superomarginal, inferomarginal and actinal plates in most species. Spine morphology variable from blunt conical to pointed, to cylindrical or small and spinelet-like. Granules with spiny tips in most species, with some having rounded surfaces. Granules present but with variable abundance among species. Tonglike pedicellariae with serrated valves present or absent on abactinal, marginal or actinal surface. Marginal plates generally quadrate in shape, some showing direct 1:1 superomarginal/inferomarginal correspondence but others being more offset. Marginals relatively numerous ranging in number from 30–70 per interradius. Some species with bare marginal plate surface, but most with even to dense granule covering. Granules varying from having rounded surface to pointed or prismatic edges. Large prominent spine or spines known in all but one species. Large single spines observed as a linear series in several species. Spinelets or multiple shorter spines observed on marginal plate surfaces of other species. Pedicellariae variably present on either supero or inferomarginal series. Actinal intermediate regions relatively small with fewer than six rows present (three or four present in most species). Actinal plate boundaries obscured by pulpy tissue layer and/or granulation. Granules round or with spiny edges present on all species. Primary spines present on actinal plate surface in most species. Furrow spines varying in number from 2–3, to 7–12. Spines generally compressed, quadrate to polygonal in cross section. Tips varying from smooth and blunt to jagged with furrowed tips. Subambulacral spination variable but a felipedal (clamp-like bivalve) pedicellariae present among the subambulacrals in most species. Subambulacrals varying but spination ranging from blunt spines, pointed spinelets to pointed or rounded granules. Based on in situ observations herein and from prior accounts (e.g. Mah et al. 2010), the color of most species ranges from yellow to deep orange. Comments. Evoplosoma is a genus of nine species, including five in the Pacific, three Atlantic and a single species from the Indian Ocean, all from deep-sea settings (approximately 750–2600m). Although described from the early 20th Century (Fisher 1906) the ecology of these species, including their role as deep-sea corallivores preying upon octocorals, particularly those in the Isididae, had only become known more recently as deep-sea video has become more widespread (Mah et al. 2010; Mah 2015a). Evoplosoma and Hippasteria are both members of the Hippasterinae, a subfamily within the Goniasteridae. Although all species within these genera have yet to have been identified as corallivores most observations have shown them to be predators of either octocorals or other colonial cnidarians, such as antipatharians. Evoplosoma was identified based on the presence of its elongate, triangular arms, the sharp, conical spines present on the marginal plates, and the pulpy granular surface. Two species were identified, Evoplosoma forcipifera, which was originally described from the Hawaiian Islands and a newly discovered species, Evoplosoma nuku n. sp. Both species were observed feeding on colonial octocorals., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on pages 42-43, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026, {"references":["Fisher, W. K. (1906) The starfishes of the Hawaiian islands. Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, 23, 987 - 1130.","Koehler, R. (1909) An account of the deep-sea Asteroidea collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator. Echinoderma of the Indian Museum, Part 5, 115 - 131.","Spencer, W. K. & Wright, C. W. (1966) Asterozoans, Part U: Echinodermata. In: Moore, R. C. (Ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. 3 (1). University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas, pp. U 4 - U 107.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Clark, A. M. (1993) An index of names of recent Asteroidea - Part 2: Valvatida. E chinoderm Studies, 4,187 - 366.","Mah, C. L., Nizinski, M. & Lundsten, L. (2010) Phylogenetic Revision of the Hippasterinae (Goniasteridae; Asteroidea): Systematics of Deep Sea Corallivores, including one new genus and three new species. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 160, 266 - 301. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00638. x","Mah, C. L. (2015 a) A new Atlantic species of Evoplosoma with taxonomic summary and in situ observations of Atlantic deep-sea corallivorous Goniasteridae (Valvatida; Asteroidea) Marine Biodiversity Records, 8 (e 5), 1 - 8. https: // doi. org / 10.1017 / S 1755267214001407"]}

Atheraster nov. gen. Etymology. The genus name is derived from the Greek ather - for “spike” alluding to the regular, prominent spines which serve to diagnose the genus. Diagnosis. Body strongly stellate (R/r=3.8-4.0) with arms, elongate and tapering. Abactinal arm plates twice to three times larger than those on the disk. Sharp, thorn-like spines present on all superomarginal and inferomarginal plates, forming regular series. Granules with pointed tips. Pedicellariae paddle-like. Furrow spine number, 8–15 in known species. Comments. The persistent presence of prominent spines along both the superomarginal and inferomarginal plate series, in addition to the enlarged arm plates relative to the disk plates further constrains the character distribution for two recognized species, suggesting a very different taxon than those observed in the otherwise similar Circeaster, which lacks spines but shares enlarged abactinal arm plates. Both species of Atheraster are known from abyssal depths (1000–3000 m) in the North Pacific. Although two species are described, many similar species were observed from in situ video which could represent further as yet undescribed species. Although clearly sharing characters with Circeaster, the spines, pedicellariae and smooth abactinal plates are also similar to those found in Calliaster and related taxa, such as Milteliphaster whereas the granulation in the Atheraster sp. described herein are similar to those seen in Hippasteria and Evoplosoma. Atheraster arandae (Mah 2006) is the type species for the genus. Included species: Atheraster arandae (Mah 2006), Atheraster symphoniae n. sp., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on pages 25-26, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026, {"references":["Mah, C. L. (2006) Phylogeny and biogeography of the deep-sea goniasterid, Circeaster (Echinodermata: Asteroidea) including descriptions of six new species. Zoosystema, 28 (4), 917 - 954."]}

Hippasteria heathi Cluster Diagnosis (Based on Mah et al. 2014). Abactinal surface covered by tubercles and/or low, thick, conical spines with blunt, pointed tips, which sit relatively close to the surface. Large (easily> 2.0 mm) bivalve pedicellariae with smooth valves present with some abundance over abactinal surface. Large bivalve pedicellariae present on, generally bisecting or occupying most of, marginal plates (Fig. 4D) in all specimens examined. Marginal plate border directed laterally, obscured by granules, spination., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on page 49, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026, {"references":["Mah, C. L., Neill, K, Eleaume, M. & Foltz, D. (2014) New Species and global revision of Hippasteria (Hippasterinae: Goniasteridae; Asteroidea; Echinodermata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 171, 422 - 456. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / zoj. 12131"]}

Litonotaster Verrill, 1899 Verrill 1899: 171; Fisher 1911: 165; Halpern 1969: 129; 1970: 252; 1970: 144; Downey 1973: 55; Clark and Downey 1992: 249; A.M. Clark 1993: 261 (checklist). (as Litonotaster) Comments. This genus is represented by two similar species, L. africanus and L. intermedius, collected from lower bathyal/abyssal settings in the tropical Atlantic with Litonotaster tumidus in the east Pacific. Halpern (1969) outlined distinctions between species in Litonotaster, with L. rotundigranulum later being synonymized by Clark and Downey (1992)., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2016, Deep-sea (> 1000 m) Goniasteridae (Valvatida; Asteroidea) from the North Pacific, including an overview of Sibogaster, Bathyceramaster n. gen. and three new species, pp. 101-141 in Zootaxa 4175 (2) on page 118, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4175.2.1, http://zenodo.org/record/257286, {"references":["Verrill, A. E. (1899) Revision of certain genera and species of starfishes, with descriptions of new forms. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 10 (1), 145 - 234.","Fisher, W. K. (1911) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters. 1. Phanerozonia and Spinulosida. Bulletin of the US National Museum, 76: xiii + 420 pp. 122 pls.","Halpern, J. A. (1969) Biological Investigations of the deep sea. 46. The genus Litonotaster (Echinodermata, Asteroidea). Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington., 82, 129 - 142.","Downey, M. E. (1973) Starfishes from the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 126, 1 - 158.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London.","Clark, A. M. (1993) An index of names of recent Asteroidea - Part 2: Valvatida. E chinoderm Studies, 4, 187 - 366."]}

Bathyceramaster Mah 2016a Mah 2016a: 105 Diagnosis. Abactinal plates tabulate, low to moderate in height with fasciolar grooves, variably shallow to well-developed, plates lacking stellate bases. Abactinal, marginal, actinal surfaces covered by densely arranged polygonal to round granules. Body stellate, many species with well-developed arms (R/ r=1.8–4.0). Comments. This genus was created to accommodate Mediaster elegans Ludwig 1905, which lacked the stellate, radiating ossicles that are present in all species belonging to the genus Mediaster (Fisher 1911; Mah 2016a). The tabular plates and well developed fasciolar grooves were also not as well-developed in Bathyceramaster as they are in Mediaster. Known Bathyceramaster spp. have only been reported from relatively deep-water settings, below 600 m, primarily between 1000–4000 m. Based on the occurrence of known species, Bathyceramaster occurs widely throughout the Pacific in a manner similar to other deep-sea Goniasteridae, such as Sibogaster (Mah 2016a)., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on page 31, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026, {"references":["Mah, C. L. (2016 a) Deep-sea (> 1000 m) Goniasteridae (Valvatida; Asteroidea) from the North Pacific, including an overview of Sibogaster, Bathyceramaster n. gen. and three new species. Zootaxa, 4175 (2), 101 - 141. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4175.2.1","Ludwig, H. (1905) Asteroidea. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, 32, vii - xii + 1 - 292, pls."]}

Brisinga Asbjørnsen 1856 Asbjørnsen 1856: 95; Fisher 1919: 515, 1928: 7; Downey 1986: 4; Clark & Downey 1992: 463. (see Clark & Downey 1992 for full synonymy) Diagnosis. Arms 7–14. Papulae absent. Abactinal disk plates with short spinelets. As with all Brisingidae, arm plates arranged in costae or ribs along arms, separated by thick skin. Adambulacral plates form adoral carina also referred to as “united interradially by syzygy.” Gonads serial., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on page 12, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026, {"references":["Asbjornsen, P. C. (1856) Brisinga endecacnemos. In: Sars, G. O., Koren, J. & Danielssen, D. C., Fauna Littoralis Norvegiae, 2, pp. 101.","Fisher, W. K. (1919) Starfishes of the Philippine seas and adjacent waters. Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 3 (100), 1 - 547, 156 pls.","Fisher, W. K. (1928) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters, Part 2: Forcipulata (Part). Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, 76, 1 - 245.","Downey, M. E. (1986) Revision of the Atlantic Brisingida (Echinodermata: Asteroidea), with description of a new genus and family. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 435, 1 - 57.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp."]}

Bathyceramaster teres n. sp. FIGURE 12A–F Etymology. The species epithet teres is Latin for “rounded or smooth” alluding to the weakly convex, bald plates on the distalmost marginal plates. Diagnosis. Body thick, weakly stellate (R/r=1.77), interradial arcs weakly curved. Lateral edge is thick and rounded. Abactinal plates tabulate, fasciolar grooves well-developed. Abactinals and marginal plates with coarse granules, abactinal plates each with four to fifty granules, most with 8 to 35. Ten distalmost superomarginal plates with quadrate, bald region, otherwise marginals covered by coarse granules. Pedicellariae tong-like with two or three valves, when present on actinal surface. Furrow spines, 4 to 7 with 2 to 4 subambulacrals (mostly 3). Actinal plates with dense covering of coarse granules similar to those on the abactinals. When alive, specimen was orange with lavender to purple colored marginal plates. Comments. A species which is identified as a species in Bathyceramaster based on the dense abactinal granulation on abactinal, marginal and actinal plates, tabulate abactinal plates and well-developed fasciolar grooves as described by Mah (2016b). Bathyceramaster teres n. sp. is distinguished from Bathyceramaster inornata n. sp. on the basis of its less stellate body shape with shorter arms (R/r=1.77–2.66 versus 4.18), fewer furrow spines (5–7 versus 9–12 in B. inornata) and the presence of discrete bald patches on the distalmost marginal plate surfaces (B. inornata with fully covered marginals). This bald region on the marginal plate surfaces also distinguishes Bathyceramaster teres from the North Pacific Bathyceramaster careyi Mah 2016b. The body shape of B. teres n. sp. is less stellate with shorter arms (R/r=1.77–2.66) than that of the North Pacific B. careyi (R/r=1.89–3.83). The paratype (USNM 1467554) is further distinguished from B. careyi based on the possession of tong-shaped bivalve or trivalve pedicellariae on the actinal surface. Bathyceramaster teres n. sp. has several characters, suggesting affinities, which are similar to the North Pacific Bathyceramaster careyi. The abactinal plates and granules on the plates surfaces are similar and both furrow spination and subambulacral spination also resemble those in B. careyi. In Situ Observations: When collected, USNM 1453747 was hunched over a glass sponge in the genus Waltheria (Fig. 12D). Following collection, the specimen had sponge spicules and tissue in the oral region suggesting it had been feeding on the sponge. This would be consistent with prior feeding observations of this species on deep-sea sponges (Mah 2016a). The Sibelius specimen (USNM 1467554) was observed on a basalt bottom with a light epizoic cover. One arm on that specimen was extended upwards away from the bottom. Occurrence: Howland Island and Sibelius Seamount, North Pacific Ocean. 2175–2439 m. Description: Body thick, weakly stellate (R/r=1.77–2.66) in outline, interradial arcs straight to weakly curved. Arms triangular. Armtips blunt (Fig. 10A). Abactinal plates tabulate, fasciolar grooves well-developed. Abactinal plates round to polygonal (Fig. 10 Ainset). Plates extend along arm, with single carinal plate series adjacent to armtip. Each abactinal plate with coarse granules, four to fifty, mostly with 8 to 35. Fewest granules present distalmost on abactinals, adjacent to superomarginal contact with highest number of granules on disk. Central disk granules vary in size relative to peripheral granules with some granules identical in size to peripherals, 25–45 centrally, 30–40 peripherally (Fig. 12A). Most other plates, especially along radial regions with central granules at least 1.5 to three times as large as the peripherals, ranging from a large single to two central granules surrounded by 7–10 to 10–15 central large granules. Granules most widely spaced radially, becoming more densely arranged interradially, especially adjacent to superomarginal contact. Papulae six per plate, resulting from openings around each plate. Madreporite weakly convex with welldeveloped sulci, flanked by six abactinal plates. Pedicellariae variably absent (USNM 1453747) to weakly present (USNM 1467554) with the latter specimen displaying only two to four tong-like pedicellariae per interradius. Superomarginals 22–24 per interradius (armtip to armtip) both superomarginals and inferomarginals very wide (W>L). Superomarginals primarily situated on the abactinal side with inferomarginals forming lateral ledge out away from superomarginals. Contact between superomarginals and inferomarginals offset forming zig-zag contact between them. Marginal plate surfaces flat to weakly convex. Marginal plates covered by coarse granules, 40–80, mostly 30–70 covering plate surface, approximately five to seven along a 1.0 mm line (Fig. 12B). Peripheral granules, 70 in total with 10 on each long side, 25 on each wide side interradially. In situ observations suggest that granules cover marginal plates along the entire distance. Granules largest on plate surface where superomarginal and inferomarginal are in contact with one another becoming more in line with size on actinal plate surface. Distalmost plates, numbering 2 to 4 with distinct, weakly convex bare region on the plate surface (Fig. 12D). Bare region smooth, with no pitting or convexities. Peripheral region of these plates with one to four series of granules present, numbering 20, 40 total. Terminal plate circular, convex relatively large, about three times the size of the carinal plates adjacent to it. No pedicellariae observed on marginal plates. Actinal surface composed of 5–7 plate series in chevron arrangement (Fig. 12C, E). Three or four series complete with one or two series adjacent to the inferomarginals incomplete in irregular series. Individual plates quadrate to polygonal in outline. Weakly developed fasciolar grooves present. Actinal plates with coarse granules three to 20 per plate, granules widely to densely spaced. Granules round to quadrate in shape. Pedicellariae, when present, are tong-like with two or three valves. When present, one pedicellariae present every three plates on the actinal plate series adjacent to the adambulacral plates (Fig. 12 E). Pedicellariae occurrence variable even on a single individual (USNM 1467554) with only two interradii displaying abundant pedicellariae, the other three largely lacking all but one or two pedicellariae. One specimen (USNM 1453747) displayed no pedicellariae on its actinal surface. Furrow spines 5–7, short, blunt in weakly palmate convex formation (Fig. 10F), rounded in cross-section. Furrow spines set apart from other adambulacral spination by discrete rounded space. Adambulacral plates rounded in shape. Subambulacral spines, 2–4, twice as thick as each furrow spine (Fig. 10F). Pedicellariae, present in place of subambulacrals on proximalmost three adambulacral plates. Pedicellariae tong-like, similar in size to two to three times thickness of the subambulacral spines. Adambulacral plate surface covered by six blunt granules/spines on remainder of each plate decreasing in size becoming continuous with granules on actinal plate surface. Oral plates with nine to ten furrow spines. Oral plate surface with 4–6 thick spines, each approximately two to three times as thick as oral plate furrow spines, plate otherwise bare. Oral plate and adambulacral plate details damaged during collection and so, some details are obscured. In situ observations show this species as white or orange (Fig. 10G). The Howland Island specimen (USNM 1453747) displayed lavender coloration along its superomarginal plate series. The other specimen (USNM 1467554) showed the more uniformly orange to yellow color with darker purple to lavender marginal plates. This suggests some variation in color within the species, possibly associated with the differently sizes of each specimen. Material Examined: Holotype. USNM 1467554 Sibelius Seamount, North Pacific, Papahuanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, 27.25/-160.63 (27º15’N 160º38’W) 2439 m, Coll. M. Putts, NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer EX1708, dive 04 (20170911/004747). 1 wet spec. R =3.2 r=1.2 EX1708 _IMG_20170911 T003849 Z_ ROVHD.jpg Paratype. USNM 1453747 Howland Island, Central Pacific Basin. 0º48’N, 176º 40’W, 2175 m, coll. NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer using the D2 ROV, 18 March 2017 EX1703. 1 wet spec. R =2.3 r=1.3. EX1703 _IMG_ 20170318 T225549 Z_ ROVHD.jpg, Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on pages 36-39, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026, {"references":["Mah, C. L. (2016 b) A new species of Brisingenes from the Hawaii Undersea Military Munitions Assessment Area with an overview of Hawaiian brisingid in situ video observations and functional morphology of subambulacral spines (Forcipulatacea; Asteroidea). Deep-Sea Research, Part II, 128, 43 - 52. https: // doi. org / 10.1016 / j. dsr 2.2014.06.003","Mah, C. L. (2016 a) Deep-sea (> 1000 m) Goniasteridae (Valvatida; Asteroidea) from the North Pacific, including an overview of Sibogaster, Bathyceramaster n. gen. and three new species. Zootaxa, 4175 (2), 101 - 141. https: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4175.2.1"]}

Brisingaster deLoriol 1883 Diagnosis. As for species below., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, New Genera, Species and Occurrences of Deep-Sea Asteroidea (Valvatacea, Forcipulatacea, Echinodermata) collected from the North Pacific Ocean by the CAPSTONE Expedition, pp. 1-75 in Zootaxa 5164 (1) on page 9, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5164.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/6821026

Peedeeaster nov. gen. Etymology. The name refers to the Peedee Formation where this species was collected Diagnosis. See below.

Sclerasterias sp. FIGURE 1A–F, 2A–D Description. Skeleton reticulate, forming open, broadly reticulated regions between plates (Fig. 1A–F). Central carinal series present, plates with large, blunt spine as well as broken spine bases (Fig. 1 A-B). Transverse irregular ribs, composed of lobate plates corresponding each to a carinal plate with superomarginal and inferomarginal plates (Fig. 1 A-C showing fossil, B-D showing extant). Regions between transverse ribs extensive, irregularly quadrate in shape but openings formed by reticulations are regular in series along arm, becoming smallest distally adjacent to terminus (Fig. 1 A-D). Superomarginals with conical, blunt-tipped spines on most plates, some spine bearing plates alternating with unspined plates. Superomarginal plates triangular, head broad, waist narrow (Fig. 1E showing extant; 1F showing fossil). Inferomarginal plates, round in cross-section, platform-like bearing what appears to be two pairs of spines on one fragment but only a single spine on another; inferomarginal spine count unclear. Spines blunt, tips spatulate. Other fragments show spines with only a single spines per plate (Fig. 2A versus extant specimen, 2B). Approximately eight inferomarginal plates observed on two specimens showing a single blunt spine present on each. Adambulacrals compressed, round to irregular in cross-section (Fig. 2A–D, B showing adambulacral plates from modern specimen). Furrow spines blunt, cylindrical, appears to be 2, although the number per adambulacral is uncertain. Three pairs of ambulacral plates present on the proximal edge of one arm fragment, these showing abactinal plate surface displaying compressed, narrow shape of each ambulacral plate. Ambulacrals also present in cross section (Fig. 2D) on two fragments, these ossicles exposed and shown articulated with adambulacral ossicles. No pedicellariae observed. Remarks on Material. Arm fragments only, no disk. No indication of arm number. Details on surface obscured by coarse cemented sand grains. Surface details and fine contacts between plates obscured by sand grains. Crosssection through arm showing marginals, ambulacrals and adambulacrals (Fig. 2D). Material Examined. SNM PAL 618279 Rocky Point Member, Peedee Formation, Pender County. Approximately 8 pieces in total. 5 partial body fragments. These pieces nearly all show adambulacrals retained in series, with transverse plates in place or adjacent but with details obscured by sand grains. 3 arm pieces showing exceptional preservation. and associated matrix.Arm appears flattened with transverse ribs compressed and flattened over the marginal plates. Comparisons within the Forcipulatacea. Other forcipulatacean groups were ruled out based on a characterbased process of elimination. Although ambulacral, and in some taxa the adambulacral ossicles, are similar, the Zoroasteridae and the Stichasteridae are characterized by linear papular rows with a much more developed skeleton which are absent from the specimens here. Forcipulataceans in the “ Pedicellasteridae,” a paraphyletic assemblage sensu Mah and Foltz (2011), which also show similar ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles, none show the strongly expressed carinal or inferomarginal spines described on the specimens here. The reticulate mesh on the material here also differs in pattern from other genera of pedicellasterids as outlined by Fisher (1928), including Ampheraster, Pedicellaster, Anteliaster, Hydrasterias and Tarsaster, most of which show either much more tightly arranged, serial papular spaces between the reticulate plates (e.g. Tarsaster) or reticulate plates in irregular or differently shaped arrays (e.g. Ampheraster, Anteliaster). Blake et al. (1996) ’s Cretaceous pedicellasterid Afraster shows abactinal plates with a much closer skeletal arrangement and smaller papular pores. The Paulasteriidae, which are similar to pedicellasterids, lack the skeletal plates observed in the specimens described (Mah et al. 2015). Fossil members of the Asteriidae include the Jurassic Germanasterias and Hystrixasterias, described by Blake (1990) as well as Cretasterias described by Gale and Villier (2013). The skeletons of these Mesozoic fossils show more strongly developed cruciform plates forming a much more closely arranged and nearly quadrate mesh which is similar to the extant zoroasterid Myxoderma. This differs from the more rib-like orientation of the plates with larger papular regions in the material described herein. The regular, open reticulate mesh and pronounced carinal series bearing large spines observed on the specimens described herein are shared characters with other members of the Asteriidae, specifically genera formerly within the now-paraphyletic Coscinasterinae, such as Coscinasterias, or Sclerasterias (Fisher 1928). Many but not all coscinasterine genera were shown to be part of the “pan-tropical” clade by Mah and Foltz (2011). The genus Sclerasterias. Specimens possessed the compressed ambulacral column ossicles and reticulate skeleton which are distinctive for the Asteriidae (Figs. 1A–D). The reticulate skeleton, carinal and, distinctive triangular superomarginal plates, superomarginal spines identify the specimens as Sclerasterias, Comparison with these genera suggested that Sclerasterias displayed the greatest morphological affinity with the fossil specimens described herein. Determination of the described specimens was difficult due to the fragmentary nature of the material as well as the material having been preserved with a covering of attached sand grains. However, the reticulate patterns were in regular series and elongate in shape, with transverse ribs extending from the carina to the inferomarginal series. This pattern is especially visible along the arm especially at the arm terminus (Fig. 1A–B). The shape, size and rate at which these reticulate spaces gradually declined in size was nearly identical on both the fossil specimens and in extant specimens of all Sclerasterias which were examined, including the Pacific Sclerasterias euplecta (Fisher 1906) and the Atlantic Sclerasterias contorta (Perrier 1881). Other prospective asteriid genera, such as Coscinasterias, Astrostole, and Marthasterias, while similar in appearance, lacked the same distinct serial reticulate openings which were observed on Sclerasterias, especially on the arm terminus. Also important for identification was the presence of the triangular shaped superomarginals with the broad head and relatively narrow waist which closely resembled the superomarginal plates in living Sclerasterias, such as S. heteropaes (Fisher 1928, Pl. 53, fig. 2) The spatulate inferomarginal spine was consistent with those observed on living Sclerasterias (Fig. 2A–B). Specimens described herein mostly showed one spine per inferomarginal plate with one plate possibly displaying two. Fisher (1928) and other accounts (e.g. Clark & Downey 1992) have outlined that Sclerasterias consistently displays two spines per inferomarginal plate. The second spine, which is generally smaller and more weakly articulated is likely absent due to poor preservation. It is plausible that there is no second inferomarginal spine and that the single observed inferomarginal spine is the basis for a separate, extinct genus of Asteriidae, perhaps similar to Sclerasterias. However, the specimen’s fragmented nature precludes a conclusive determination and other skeletal characters, such as the shape of the superomarginal plate and the distinct repeating reticulate skeleton on the armtip suggest Sclerasterias. Potential Phylogenetic Importance. The observed material suggests a first occurrence of the recent asteriid genus Sclerasterias from the Cretaceous of North America, which had previously been known only from the Eocene Sclerasterias zinsmeisteri from Seymour Island, Antarctica (Blake & Aronson 1998). Modern Sclerasterias includes 15 species which are found primarily at tropical to temperate latitudes in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans at shallow to deep-sea depths (3–700 m). Modern species have not been recorded from high-latitude settings. Within the two and three-gene molecular trees for the Forcipulatacea developed by Mah and Foltz (2011) the Asteriidae formed distinct lineages with regional partitioning. This included a Boreal clade which included coldwater and temperate genera largely from the North Pacific, a Pan Tropical clade with warm-water and temperate genera, and an Antarctic clade which included taxa primarily from the Southern Hemisphere. Within this context, Sclerasterias occupied important but variable positions. On the two-gene tree Sclerasterias was the sister branch to a clade containing the Pan Tropical and Antarctic clades, suggesting a close relationship to taxa in equatorial and southern hemisphere settings whereas on the three-gene tree Sclerasterias was supported, albeit poorly, on a clade with the Atlantic Marthasterias as a sister clade to most of the northern hemisphere Asteriidae. It was suggested by Mah and Foltz (2011) that most of the Asteriidae sensu strictu diversified in the Cenozoic relative to the more stemward Forcipulatacea (i.e. the Zoroasteridae, “pedicellasterids”, etc.). Survey of modern Sclerasterias species suggests that it can be best described as a generalist tolerating a broad range of environments across its range. Modern Sclerasterias species occur in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans (Clark & Mah 2001) and are present in diverse habitats ranging from shallow subtidal settings (e.g., Barker & Xu 1991) to steep rock walls on New Zealand Fjords (Grange et al. 1980) to deep-sea cold-seeps (e.g. Gordon 2010). Barker and Xu (1991) noted that offshore individuals of Sclerasterias mollis were larger and showed higher gonad and pyloric caeca indices than inshore members, suggesting adaptation to food availability and/or population density. It is argued that the presence of Sclerasterias in the Maastrichtian (Cretaceous) of North America would be consistent with a widely occurring generalist taxon present in the Tethys and the Pacific oceans in the Mesozoic with subsequent regional or other environmental changes could have led to differentiation of the clades within the Asteriidae. Historical Biogeography. Five species of extant Sclerasterias are known from the Atlantic (Clark & Downey 1992) with two species known from off the eastern coast of the United States, Sclerasteiras contorta (Perrier 1881), which occurs from Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to Brazil at a depth range of 384–424 m and Sclerasterias tanneri (Verrill 1880), which is recorded from Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras at a depth of 62– 699 m. A Cretaceous occurrence in North America would be consistent with an historical western Tethyan distribution for Sclerasterias spp. in the western Atlantic., Published as part of Mah, Christopher L., 2022, A new genus and species of Goniasteridae, Peedeeaster sandersoni, and the first occurrence of Sclerasterias (Asteriidae) from the Cretaceous Peedee Formation of North Carolina, pp. 533-548 in Zootaxa 5138 (5) on pages 535-539, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5138.5.2, http://zenodo.org/record/6571869, {"references":["Mah, C. & Foltz D. (2011) Molecular Phylogeny of the Forcipulatacea (Asteroidea: Echinodermata): Systematics & Biogeography. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 162, 646 - 660. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2010.00659. x","Fisher, W. K. (1928) Asteroidea of the North Pacific and adjacent waters, part 2: Forcipulata (part). Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 76, 1 - 245. https: // doi. org / 10.5479 / si. 03629236.76.2","Blake, D. B., Breton, G. & Gofas, S. (1996) A new genus and species of Asteriidae (Asteroidea, Echinodermata) from the Upper Cretaceous (Coniacian) of Angola, Africa. Palaontologische Zeitschrift, 70 (1 / 2), 181 - 187. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / BF 02988276","Mah, C. L., Linse K., Copley, J., Marsh, L., Rogers, A., Clague, D. & Foltz, D. (2015) Description of a New Family, New Genus and Two New Species of deep-sea","Gale, A. S. & Villier, L. (2013) Mass Mortality of an asteriid starfish (Forcipulatida, Asteroidea, Echinodermata) from the Late Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) of Morocco. Paleontology, 56 (3), 577 - 588. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / pala. 12002","Fisher, W. K. (1906) The starfishes of the Hawaiian islands. Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, 23, 987 - 1130.","Perrier, E. (1881) Report on the Results of dredging in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Caribbean Sea, 1877 - 79, by the United States Coastal Survey Steamer Blake. 14. Description sommaire des especes nouvelles d'Asteries. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 9, 1 - 31.","Clark, A. M. & Downey, M. E. (1992) Starfishes of the Atlantic. Chapman and Hall, London, 794 pp.","Blake, D. B. & Aronson, R. B. (1998) Eocene stelleroids (Echinodermata) at Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula. Journal of Paleontology, 72 (2), 339 - 353. https: // doi. org / 10.1017 / S 0022336000036325","Clark, A. M. & Mah C. (2001) An index of names of recent Asteroidea. Part 4. Forcipulatida and Brisingida. Echinoderm Studies, 6, 229 - 347.","Barker, M. & Xu, R. A. (1991) Population differences in gonad and pyloric caeca cycles of the New Zealand seastar Sclerasterias mollis (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Marine Biology, 108, 97 - 103.","Grange, K. R., Singleton, R. I., Richardson, J. R., Hill, P. J. & deL. Main, W. (1980) Shallow rock-wall biological associations of some southern fjords of New Zealand. 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