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Tularemia, a disease caused by the environmental bacterium Francisella tularensis, is characterized by acute febrile illness. F. tularensis is highly infectious: as few as 10 organisms can cause human disease. Tularemia is not known to be spread from person to person., Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of the zoonotic disease tularemia, can cause seasonal outbreaks of acute febrile illness in humans with disease peaks in late summer to autumn. Interestingly, its mechanisms for environmental persistence between outbreaks are poorly understood. One hypothesis is that F. tularensis forms biofilms in aquatic environments. We utilized two fully virulent wild-type strains: FSC200 (Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica) and Schu S4 (Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis) and three control strains, the attenuated live vaccine strain (LVS; F. tularensis subsp. holarctica), a Schu S4 ΔwbtI mutant that is documented to form biofilms, and the low-virulence strain U112 of the closely related species Francisella novicida. Strains were incubated in saline solution (0.9% NaCl) microcosms for 24 weeks at both 4°C and 20°C, whereupon viability and biofilm formation were measured. These temperatures were selected to approximate winter and summer temperatures of fresh water in Scandinavia, respectively. U112 and Schu S4 ΔwbtI formed biofilms, but F. tularensis strains FSC200 and Schu S4 and the LVS did not. All strains exhibited prolonged viability at 4°C compared to 20°C. U112 and FSC200 displayed remarkable long-term persistence at 4°C, with only 1- and 2-fold log reductions, respectively, of viable cells after 24 weeks. Schu S4 exhibited lower survival, yielding no viable cells by week 20. At 24 weeks, cells from FSC200, but not from Schu S4, were still fully virulent in mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate biofilm-independent, long-term survival of pathogenic F. tularensis subsp. holarctica in conditions that mimic overwinter survival in aquatic environments. IMPORTANCE Tularemia, a disease caused by the environmental bacterium Francisella tularensis, is characterized by acute febrile illness. F. tularensis is highly infectious: as few as 10 organisms can cause human disease. Tularemia is not known to be spread from person to person. Rather, all human infections are independently acquired from the environment via the bite of blood-feeding arthropods, ingestion of infected food or water, or inhalation of aerosolized bacteria. Despite the environmental origins of human disease events, the ecological factors governing the long-term persistence of F. tularensis in nature between seasonal human outbreaks are poorly understood. The significance of our research is in identifying conditions that promote long-term survival of fully virulent F. tularensis outside a mammalian host or insect vector. These conditions are similar to those found in natural aquatic environments in winter and provide important new insights on how F. tularensis may persist long-term in the environment.

Challenges of investigating a suspected bio attack include establishing if microorganisms have been cultured to produce attack material and to identify their source. Addressing both issues, we have investigated genetic variations that emerge during laboratory culturing of the bacterial pathogen Francisella tularensis. Key aims were to identify genetic variations that are characteristic of laboratory culturing and explore the possibility of using biological amplification to identify genetic variation present at exceedingly low frequencies in a source sample. We used parallel serial passage experiments and high-throughput sequencing of F. tularensis to explore the genetic variation. We found that during early laboratory culture passages of F. tularensis, gene duplications emerged in the pathogen genome followed by single-nucleotide polymorphisms in genes for bacterial capsule synthesis. Based on a biological enrichment scheme and the use of high-throughput sequencing, we identified genetic variation that likely pre-existed in a source sample. The results support that capsule synthesis gene mutations are common during laboratory culture, and that a biological amplification strategy is useful for linking a F. tularensis sample to a specific laboratory variant among many highly similar variants.

We analysed diverse strains of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica to assess if its division into biovars I and II is associated with specific mutations previously linked to erythromycin resistance and to determine the distribution of this resistance trait across this subspecies.Three-hundred and fourteen F. tularensis subsp. holarctica strains were tested for erythromycin susceptibility and whole-genome sequences for these strains were examined for SNPs in genes previously associated with erythromycin resistance. Each strain was assigned to a global phylogenetic framework using genome-wide canonical SNPs. The contribution of a specific SNP to erythromycin resistance was examined using allelic exchange. The geographical distribution of erythromycin-resistant F. tularensis strains was further investigated by literature search.There was a perfect correlation between biovar II strains (erythromycin resistance) and the phylogenetic group B.12. Only B.12 strains had an A → C SNP at position 2059 in the three copies of the rrl gene. Introducing 2059C into an rrl gene of an erythromycin-susceptible F. tularensis strain resulted in resistance. An additional 1144 erythromycin-resistant strains were identified from the scientific literature, all of them from Eurasia.Erythromycin resistance in F. tularensis is caused by an A2059C rrl gene mutation, which exhibits a strictly clonal inheritance pattern found only in phylogenetic group B.12. This group is an extremely successful clone, representing the most common type of F. tularensis throughout Eurasia.

In Sweden, mosquitoes are considered the major vectors of the bacterium Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica, which causes tularaemia. The aim of this study was to investigate whether mosquitoes acquire the bacterium as aquatic larvae and transmit the disease as adults. Mosquitoes sampled in a Swedish area where tularaemia is endemic (A-rebro) were positive for the presence of F. tularensis deoxyribonucleic acid throughout the summer. Presence of the clinically relevant F. tularensis subsp. holarctica was confirmed in 11 out of the 14 mosquito species sampled. Experiments performed using laboratory-reared Aedes aegypti confirmed that F. tularensis subsp. holarctica was transstadially maintained from orally infected larvae to adult mosquitoes and that 25 % of the adults exposed as larvae were positive for the presence of F. tularensis-specific sequences for at least 2 weeks. In addition, we found that F. tularensis subsp. holarctica was transmitted to 58 % of the adult mosquitoes feeding on diseased mice. In a small-scale in vivo transmission experiment with F. tularensis subsp. holarctica-positive adult mosquitoes and susceptible mice, none of the animals developed tularaemia. However, we confirmed that there was transmission of the bacterium to blood vials by mosquitoes that had been exposed to the bacterium in the larval stage. Taken together, these results provide evidence that mosquitoes play a role in disease transmission in part of Sweden where tularaemia recurs.

Transmission sites of specific Francisella tularensis genotypes were highly localized during natural outbreaks of human tularemia., Summer outbreaks of tularemia that occurred from 1995 through 2005 in 2 locations in Sweden affected 441 persons. We performed an epidemiologic investigation of these outbreaks using a novel strategy, involving high-resolution genotyping of Francisella tularensis isolates obtained from 136 patients (using 18 genetic markers developed from 6 F. tularensis genome sequences) and interviews with the patients. Strong spatial associations were found between F. tularensis subpopulations and the places of disease transmission; infection by some subpopulations occurred within areas as small as 2 km2, indicating unidentified environmental point sources of tularemia. In both locations, disease clusters were associated with recreational areas beside water, and genetic subpopulations were present throughout the tularemia season and persisted over years. High-resolution genotyping in combination with patients’ statements about geographic places of disease transmission provided valuable indications of likely sources of infection and the causal genotypes during these tularemia outbreaks.

A strain of Francisella endociliophora was isolated from a laboratory culture of the marine ciliate Euplotes raikovi . Here, we report the complete genome sequence of the bacterial strain FSC1006 ( Francisella Strain Collection, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Umeå, Sweden).

There are conflicting reports in the literature as to whether palmitoylethanolamide affects the function of mast cell-related cell lines in vitro, in contrast to the well-documented effects of this compound upon mast cell function in vivo. In the present study, we have reinvestigated the effects of palmitoylethanolamide upon antigen-induced release of [3H]serotonin and beta-hexosaminidase from rat basophilic leukemia RBL-2H3 cells and compared these effects with those of 2-arachidonoylglycerol, anandamide and R1-methanandamide. RBL-2H3 cells were sensitized with a monoclonal anti-DNP IgE, after which they were stimulated with antigen (DNP-HSA). Palmitoylethanolamide produced a small, but significant reduction in antigen-stimulated [3H]serotonin release at high concentrations, whereas anandamide was without effect. In contrast, 2-arachidonoylglycerol and methanandamide increased the antigen-stimulated release of both [3H]serotonin and beta-hexosaminidase. It is concluded that in RBL-2H3 cells, these cannabimimetic fatty acid derivatives do not have potent stabilizing effects upon antigen-induced degranulation.

Here we report the complete, accurate 1.89-Mb genome sequence of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica strain FSC200, isolated in 1998 in the Swedish municipality Ljusdal, which is in an area where tularemia is highly endemic. This genome is important because strain FSC200 has been extensively used for functional and genetic studies of Francisella and is well-characterized.

Detection and identification of pathogens in environmental samples for biosecurity applications are challenging due to the strict requirements on specificity, sensitivity and time. We have developed a concept for quick, specific and sensitive pathogen identification in environmental samples. Target identification is realized by padlock- and proximity probing, and reacted probes are amplified by RCA (rolling-circle amplification). The individual RCA products are labeled by fluorescence and enumerated by an instrument, developed for sensitive and rapid digital analysis. The concept is demonstrated by identification of simili biowarfare agents for bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pantoea agglomerans) and spores (Bacillus atrophaeus) released in field.

Tularemia, caused by the bacteriumFrancisella tularensis, whereF. tularensissubspeciesholarcticahas long been the cause of endemic disease in parts of northern Sweden. Despite this, our understanding of the natural life-cycle of the organism is still limited. During three years, we collected surface water samples (n=341) and sediment samples (n=245) in two areas in Sweden with endemic tularemia. Real-time PCR screening demonstrated the presence ofF. tularenis lpnAsequences in 108 (32%) and 48 (20%) of the samples, respectively. The 16S rRNA sequences from those samples all grouped to the speciesF. tularensis. Analysis of the FtM19InDel region oflpnA-positive samples from selected sampling points confirmed the presence ofF. tularensissubspeciesholarctica-specific sequences. These sequences were detected in water sampled during both outbreak and nonoutbreak years. Our results indicate that diverseF. tularensis-like organisms, includingF. tularensissubsp.holarctica, persist in natural waters and sediments in the investigated areas with endemic tularemia.

After 27 years with no detected cases, an outbreak of anthrax occurred in a beef cattle herd in the south of Sweden. The outbreak was unusual as it occurred in winter, in animals not exposed to meat-and-bone meal, in a non-endemic country. The affected herd consisted of 90 animals, including calves and young stock. The animals were kept in a barn on deep straw bedding and fed only roughage. Seven animals died during 10 days, with no typical previous clinical signs except fever. The carcasses were reportedly normal in appearance, particularly as regards rigor mortis, bleeding and coagulation of the blood. Subsequently, three more animals died and anthrax was suspected at necropsy and confirmed by culture and PCR on blood samples. The isolated strain was susceptible to tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and ampicillin. Subtyping by MLVA showed the strain to cluster with isolates in the A lineage of Bacillus anthracis. Environmental samples from the holding were all negative except for two soil samples taken from a spot where infected carcasses had been kept until they were picked up for transport. The most likely source of the infection was concluded to be contaminated roughage, although this could not be substantiated by laboratory analysis. The suspected feed was mixed with soil and dust and originated from fields where flooding occurred the previous year, followed by a dry summer with a very low water level in the river allowing for the harvesting on soil usually not exposed. In the early 1900s, animal carcasses are said to have been dumped in this river during anthrax outbreaks and it is most likely that some anthrax spores could remain in the area. The case indicates that untypical cases in non-endemic areas may be missed to a larger extent than previously thought. Field tests allowing a preliminary risk assessment of animal carcasses would be helpful for increased sensitivity of detection and prevention of further exposure to the causative agent.