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Some of the nation's most vulnerable youth are those living in foster care and other out-of-home settings. Many such youth have experienced abuse and neglect, face mental health and substance abuse challenges, and struggle with serious behavioral problems (Casanueva et al. 2014). They are more likely than their peers to have academic struggles and less likely to graduate from high school or attend college (Dworsky et al. 2014). In part for these reasons, they also have higher rates of teen pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and associated sexual risk behaviors. Estimates suggest that as many as one in three girls in foster care will become a teen mother--a rate more than double the national average (Dworsky and Courtney 2010). Of those who become mothers before age 18, more than one in four will go on to have another child before aging out of their teens (Putnam-Hornstein and King 2014). This report presents interim findings from a large-scale demonstration project and evaluation of the POWER Through Choices (PTC) program, a comprehensive sexual health education curriculum designed specifically for youth in foster care and other out-of-home care settings. The program features ten 90-minute sessions delivered to small groups of youth by trained facilitators in a classroom-based setting. This curriculum-based structure is similar to many teen pregnancy prevention programs delivered to general youth populations in schools and community settings. The PTC program is unique, however, in addressing the needs and risk factors specific to youth in foster care and other out-of-home care settings. Findings from an implementation study of the PTC program were presented in an earlier report (Meckstroth et al. 2014). The present report adds to these findings by describing the short-term impacts of the PTC program on youth knowledge, attitudes, and intentions. A future report will examine the program's longer-term impacts on youth sexual risk behaviors. The following are appended: (1) Nonresponse Analysis; (2) Outcome Measures; and (3) Sensitivity Analyses.

Research supports the anecdotal observation that unmarried mothers and their children face greater obstacles and suffer greater strains than married couples and their children. Less is known about the specific characteristics of the women who have births outside of marriage. This research brief paints a fuller picture of nonmarital childbearing. The data presented here dispel many inaccurate perceptions about unmarried mothers. Research findings indicate that: (1) the percentage of births to unmarried women increased substantially until 1994 and has since plateaued; (2) women in their early twenties have the highest rate of births outside of marriage; (3) teens account for a diminishing share of all births outside of marriage; (4) only about half of nonmarital births are first births; (5) the majority of births outside of marriage are unintended at conception; (6) racial and ethnic disparities in nonmarital childbearing are declining; (7) the proportion of nonmarital births to cohabiting parents is increasing; (8) whites show the greatest increase in births to cohabiting couples; and (9) the majority of unmarried mothers are romantically involved with the father of their baby at the time of the birth. The brief concludes with an examination of factors behind the trends in nonmarital childbearing, the implications of nonmarital childbearing for mothers and children, and public perception of the situation versus reality. Contains 20 references. (EV)

The current research and policy debate over why teen pregnancy and birth rates have declined in the 1990s has focused on whether increased abstinence or increased contraceptive use is primarily responsible. This research brief indicates that both factors appear to be contributing factors. It finds that: (1) the percentage of teens who reported ever having had sexual intercourse declined for both males and females from 1988 to 1995; (2) the majority of male and female sexually experienced teens had either 0 or 1 partner in the past year; and (3) the percentage of female teens who reported using any method of contraceptive at first sexual encounter increased between 1982 and 1995. On the other hand, the brief also notes less promising trends, including: (1) a decline in the percentage of female teens who report using any method of contraception at their most recent sex encounter; (2) an increase in the percentage of teens having sex before age 15; and (3) an increase risk for Hispanic teens of teen pregnancy. The proportion of Hispanic teens who are sexually experienced has increased, but they are the least likely to use any form of contraception at first sex encounter or most recent sex encounter. Finally, the brief highlights recommendations, including the following: (1) employ multiple strategies to reduce teen pregnancy; (2) support programs to increase involvement among males in decision-making about contraceptive use; (3) emphasize to teens the need to use contraception consistently; (4) develop strategies to discourage sex among young teens; and (5) target more programs specifically to address needs of different racial/ethnic and cultural groups. (Contains 11 references.) (EV)

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort 2000 (ECLS-B) is a study that will assess children's health status and their growth and development in domains that are critical for later school readiness and academic achievement. This paper is one of several that have been prepared in support of ECLS-B design efforts. It is anticipated that three waves of data will be collected from families of children born between January and December 2000, with supplementary data collected from child care providers. Several options remaining to be decided are addressed, including identifying the primary respondent and other respondents, the assessments to be used, and how to collect data on variables such as other children in the family. The following eight major domains have been identified for the study: (1) demographic background; (2) family organization, composition, history, and turbulence; (3) family processes; (4) child care; (5) child characteristics; (6) child outcomes; (7) early health care, feeding patterns, nutrition, and insurance; and (8) distal constructs, such as neighborhood characteristics. Each of these domains is discussed. (Contains 485 references.) (SLD)

Recent research has identified several long-term negative life outcomes associated with teenage childbearing for parents and their children. To better understand teen births, data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 were used to examine factors associated with a second teen birth or a closely spaced second teen birth within 24 months. Results of this study are reported here. Out of a sample of 589 teen mothers, 34.5% had a second birth at any point in their teens, and among a sub-sample of young teen mothers (n=475, under age 18 at first birth), 27.6% had a closely spaced second teen birth. Factors associated with postponing a second teen birth included characteristics measured prior to the first birth (race/ethnicity and school type), at the time of the first birth (age at first birth, dropout status and marital status), and after the first birth (living situation, child care support, and educational and employment status). Among the full sample, younger teens were more likely to have a second birth at any point. Teen mothers who were involved in educational activities or (among older mothers) employment activities, even part-time, were more likely to postpone a second teen birth. (RJM)

Despite a voluminous literature on the determinants of adolescent parenthood, little research exists on school-level influences on nonmarital, school-age motherhood. To address this gap, analyses of data from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) were conducted to determine individual, family, and school-level predictors of nonmarital motherhood of girls between eighth and twelfth grade for a nationally representative sample. All independent variables were measured in eighth grade, and the analyses were repeated separately for black adolescents and white adolescents. The analyses indicated that school safety was an important predictor of nonmarital motherhood. However, school context did not override the effects of family- and individual-level influences. Low individual educational performance measures, such as low test scores and grades, predicted a higher risk of early motherhood, as did being held back in school and repeatedly changing schools. A substantial level of involvement in school clubs and religious organizations was associated with a lower risk of school-age motherhood. Among blacks, attending sexuality education at least once a week was associated with a greater risk of having a nonmarital birth. In general, adolescents least prepared for motherhood and least prepared to be self-sufficient were at the greatest risk of a nonmarital birth during the high school years. (Contains 61 references.) (Author)

Due to the unusually high number of adolescent mothers in the United States, public concern surrounding the issue of teenage motherhood has accelerated. In order to understand this birth trend, an ecological framework which considers multiple aspects of the lives of teenage mothers is presented here. The study, which uses the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), identifies characteristics measured at the family, individual, and school levels and which are associated with positive educational outcomes. The models suggest some buffering factors associated with positive educational outcomes among school-age mothers; the data indicate that 49.4 percent of teen mothers had dropped out by the equivalent of the twelfth grade. The main family background characteristics that the models revealed included race\ethnicity (African-American teen mothers are more likely to be enrolled in high school or in an alternative program than are whites); family structure (living with two biological parents in eighth grade is associated with a greater likelihood of staying in school); and location (mothers in the eighth grade in central city schools or in the South were less likely to be enrolled in school than to drop out of school). Models describe different characteristics of mothers in school, in an alternative program, out of school, and a control group. (EMK)

This study used current data from a cohort of eighth graders in the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 to test whether dropping out of high school and other measures of educational performance and involvement influenced the likelihood of having a school-age birth for whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Three major sets of independent variables were included, family-level (race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, family size, intact family, mother's age at first birth); school-level (school type, percent minority, percent low income); and individual level (sex education, school performance, involvement in school activities, retention in grade, dropout status). Findings indicated that black females were more likely to have school-age births than Hispanics or whites, but were not more likely to drop out of school. Hispanics had the highest dropout rates. A set of proportional hazards models supported an opportunity-cost approach for predicting school-age motherhood; for all racial/ethnic groups, high educational performance, school involvement, and aspirations were associated with postponing motherhood. Among whites and Hispanics, dropouts, especially young dropouts, were more likely to become school-age mothers, apart from other family and educational factors. While African American teens did not show a relationship between dropping out of school and the risk of motherhood, school-level factors were important predictors of having a school-age birth for this group. (Contains 54 references.) (Author/KB)

The United States continues to have one of the highest teen birth rates in the developed world, and adolescent rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are also high. These factors highlight the need to identify effective evidence-based programs to improve adolescent reproductive health. This brief synthesizes findings from 118 experimental evaluations of 100 program models. These were evaluations measuring reproductive health of youth and adolescents to determine how frequently these programs work to improve behavioral sexual outcomes such as sexual initiation and activity, number of sexual partners, anal/oral sex, sex under the influence of drugs/alcohol, condom and contraceptive use, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and pregnancies or births. These programs used a range of program approaches and served a variety of populations in many different settings. [Additional support was provided by the JPB Foundation.]

Teen childbearing is associated with negative outcomes for teen parents, their children, and society. Teen mothers are more likely to be poor as adults, and are more likely to rely on public assistance, compared with women who delay childbearing. Children born to young mothers have poorer educational, behavioral, and health outcomes throughout their lives, compared with children born to older parents, in part because of lower parental education and relationship stability. This brief reports the results of using the Social Genome Model to provide a better understanding of how delaying childbearing and improving the educational attainment of teen mothers in one generation can be linked to the improved economic well-being of their children. This brief specifically reports results from "What if" simulations, in which teen mothers' age at their first birth was increased by two or five years and in which the mothers earn a high school diploma. The implications of these changes on the life of the mothers' children are estimated through childhood and up to age 29.

Recently released government data show that in 2006, the U.S. teen birth rate began to increase, marking the end of a 14-year period of decline. More specifically, these data show that between 2005 and 2007, the teen birth rate climbed five percent. This trend reversal is a cause for concern, given the negative consequences of teen childbearing for the mothers involved and for their children especially. For example, research indicates that children of teen mothers fare worse on cognitive and behavioral outcomes than do their peers with older mothers. Teen mothers are more likely than older mothers to be dependent on public assistance after giving birth and to experience turbulence in their family structures--even taking into account the fact that teen mothers tend to be from disadvantaged backgrounds. In addition, teen mothers are at a particularly high risk of dropping out of school, although previous research has found that they are more likely to be having problems in school prior to their pregnancy. In light of teen mothers' heightened risk of becoming high school dropouts, Child Trends used recently released national survey data to explore high school diploma and GED attainment among women who had given birth as teens. Particularly, we looked at whether they had earned these educational credentials by the time that they reached their early twenties. Our findings show that slightly more than one-half of young women who had been teen mothers received a high school diploma by the age of 22, compared with 89 percent of young women who had not given birth during their teen years. Furthermore, results of our analyses show that young women who had a child before the age of 18 were even less likely than were those who had a child when they were 18 or 19 to earn a high school diploma before the age of 22, although the rates of GED attainment in the former group were slightly higher. We also found differences in educational attainment among teen mothers by race/ethnicity. (Contains 4 figures.)

Teen romantic relationships have become a pervasive part of popular culture, from TV shows, movies, and books to blogs and social networking sites. But the attention paid to these relationships extends beyond the parameters of popular culture. Romance, teen style, has become of increasing interest to anyone concerned with healthy adolescent development--with good reason. The initiation of romantic relationships represents a key developmental task of adolescence. Research suggests that several critical dimensions of adolescent romantic and sexual relationships--such as how teens define the different types of relationships, how serious they consider these relationships, and how they communicate within them--may influence when teens first have sex and whether they use contraception. In turn, these considerations have a bearing on teens' risks of having or fathering a child or of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Moreover, relationship habits and patterns developed during adolescence can affect later adult relationships, a finding that highlights the importance of developing healthy relationship behaviors during the teen years. The majority of teens in high school have been involved in a romantic relationship, and almost one-half of high school-aged teens report that they have had at least one sexual experience. Learning more about how teens view these relationships can provide insights that help policy makers, program providers, parents, and others promote healthy youth development in general and address the problems of teen pregnancy and STIs in particular. Toward this end, Child Trends recently conducted focus groups to hear what teens themselves have to say about these relationships. Because of relatively high levels of early sexual activity, teenage childbearing, and STIs among racial and ethnic minority groups, the teens that we selected for this project were African American and Latino. We conducted seven focus groups with a total of 52 teen boys and girls living in Washington, DC. This "Research Brief" summarizes findings from the focus groups. What we learned was both encouraging and sobering. In general, the teens showed that they knew what a healthy teen relationship should look like; that is, it should be marked by respect, honesty, fidelity, good communication, and the absence of violence. Yet, at the same time, many of the teens expressed pessimism about their chances of experiencing that type of relationship themselves. Nor did they know many adults whose romantic relationships were worthy of emulation. (Contains 1 figure.) [This brief is based largely on a paper prepared by the authors titled "Teen Perspectives on Healthy Romantic Relationships Among Racial/Ethnic Minorities."]