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In this review, we described the history of vaccination, the different types of vaccines, and how vaccination coverage has been affected by the current COVID-19 pandemic. The effectiveness of the vaccines under metabolic host conditions is analyzed, especially when people have lost their immunocompetence, such as in patients with chronic kidney disease who are in dialysis treatment. Vaccines are produced in a variety of industrial methods, modifying costs. The novel field of vaccinomics includes the set of immune responses, the satisfactory levels of neutralizing antibodies, the production of metabolites, and the induction of protein expression. Finally, an analysis is made of the confusing messages regarding vaccination that are disseminated on social networks, and general recommendations are given.En esta revisión se describen el historial de vacunación, los diferentes tipos de vacunas y cómo la cobertura de vacunación se ha visto afectada por la pandemia actual de COVID-19. Se analiza la efectividad de las vacunas en condiciones metabólicas del huésped, especialmente cuando las personas han perdido su inmunocompetencia, como los pacientes con enfermedad renal crónica que están en tratamiento de diálisis. Las vacunas se producen con una variedad de métodos industriales, modificando los costos. El nuevo campo de la vacunómica incluye el conjunto de respuestas inmunitarias, los niveles satisfactorios de anticuerpos neutralizantes, la producción de metabolitos y la inducción de la expresión de proteínas. Finalmente, se analizan los confusos mensajes sobre vacunación que se difunden en las redes sociales y se dan recomendaciones generales.

Throughout the last decade, crustacean aquaculture has been developing rapidly worldwide and has given rise to a growing global trend demanding freshwater native species that share both, socio-economic importance and commercial interest such as subtropical and temperate palaemonids. Unfortunately, the reduction of native populations and the partial or complete absence of ovigerous females during the months of autumn and winter are serious obstacles towards a successful, responsible, and profitable cultivation of such palaemonid species. When reviewing the natural environment at the start of the reproductive season, an increase in both, water temperature and daylight is easily perceived, thus we decided to investigate their effects (temperature and photoperiod) on the ovarian maturation in a subtropical freshwater palaemonid of commercial interest (Cryphiops caementarius) with promising results for a strong and prosperous commercial cultivation. Adult females of C. caementarius were randomly distributed among four treatment groups (G1, G2, G3, and G4). The study was developed in two phases, an initial conditioning phase in which the four treatment groups were exposed to winter environmental conditions for 42 days (photoperiod 10 L:14D, temperature 13 °C) and a final test in which each group was exposed to a specific combination of photoperiod and temperature for a term of 105 days: G1-winter photoperiod and winter temperature (10 L:14D, 13 °C), G2-summer photoperiod and summer temperature (14 L:10D, 25 °C), G3-summer photoperiod and winter temperature (14 L:10D, 13 °C), G4- winter photoperiod and summer temperature (10 L:14D, 25 °C). All the females were individually marked and the events of maturity and spawning were monitored. Maturity events were not recorded in any of the treatment groups exposed to winter temperatures, while 39 % and 31 % of the females exposed to summer temperatures in G2 and G4 respectively, had at least one maturity event during the testing phase. The results obtained suggest that an increase in temperature could be the environmental cue responsible for triggering the process of ovarian maturity in C. caementarius and that an adequate thermal control would allow the production of ovigerous females during the winter months. Controlling crustacean reproduction in captivity using environmental variables instead of invasive techniques such as eyestalk ablation or hormone injection opens a feasible path towards recovering natural populations and/or consolidating commercial farming through friendly aquaculture procedures.

The variation in saline requirements during larval development of Cryphiops caementarius establishes a particular coexistence in the culture systems between the shrimp larvae, the microalgae and Artemia nauplii. Although the technology for the mass production of freshwater prawn juveniles has advanced positively, the non-commercial availability of an exclusive live feed for amphidromous crustaceans, such as C. caementarius , has created the need to optimize the management of organisms commonly used as feed in the larval culture of marine crustaceans. We investigated the effect of salinity on embryonic development dynamics and the hatching rate of commercial Artemia sp. cysts, including the effect of cooling decapsulated cysts on the hatching rate, and the effect of salinity on the behavior of marine microalgae used as live feed in the larviculture of C. caementarius . The results encourage a sustained and stable production of Artemia nauplii at different salinities, and at the same time, reduce by 80% the daily time used in feeding activities. Also, the information generated in this study adds critical information about activities and procedures for the larviculture of the northern river shrimp, which could be used to improve larval feeding strategies either in C. caementarius or in other amphidromous crustacean species.

Controlling the concentration of bioflocs is one of the main concerns in aquaculture systems with Biofloc Technology (BFT). Biofloc accumulation deteriorates the water quality and can negatively affect the production rates of the farmed river shrimp. This study describes and characterizes the settling velocity distribution of bioflocs generated with the addition of two carbon sources (molasses and chancaca) when applying the BFT for the rearing of the river shrimp Cryphiops caementarius. This study revealed that bioflocs generated with different carbon sources have different settling velocity curves. Regarding the mass fraction settling velocities, there were significant differences (P

In Chile many experiments to artificially produce juvenile Cryphiops caementarius have been carried out in order to obtain enough stock for aquaculture or repopulation in natural habitats. The aquaculture production technology has been developed by the research staff of the Aquaculture Department of the Universidad Católica del Norte, with the aim of enhancing cultivation at commercial level, obtaining a sustainable production, and decreasing the fisheries pressure on natural populations. The latter is now based on the collection of ovigerous female obtained from their natural habitat. The research shows that it is possible to cultivate C. caementarius juveniles in 65 days through 18 zoeal stages.

The present study is a review of the main inland water malacostracan species of northern Chile: Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782). This species sustains the local fisheries in northern and central Chilean hydrographical basins. Cryphiops caementarius, in Chile known as the northern river shrimp, is endemic to rivers west of the Andes Mountains in Peru, and south from Chancay-Lambayeque River and the rivers in the northern Chilean littoral up to 32°55′S. Research on this species in its natural habitat consigned between 1958 to 2008 was directed to population knowledge, including mainly the existing populations in rivers in the Regions of Atacama and Coquimbo. Important advances were also made with regards to the study of the embryonic development, biology, life cycle and reproduction that serve as a basis for the technological development of juvenile production in a controlled environment.

Se estudia el desarrollo larvario del camarón de río del norte de Chile, Cryphiops caementarius, desde el estado de zoea 1 hasta el primer juvenil, caracterizando y analizando criterios que verificaron la aplicación de indicadores de tipo morfológico y de comportamiento para la evaluación de la condición larvaria de la especie, en condiciones de cultivo. Las larvas, se mantuvieron en cultivo, en un tanque de 250 L con agua a 20 psu y temperatura de 25 ± 1°C, controlada con termostato y con un recambio del 100% diariamente. La alimentación consistió en microalgas (Nannochloris sp. e Isochrysis sp.), rotíferos (Brachionus plicatilis), nauplios de Artemia franciscana y alimento formulado. Se utilizaron cinco indicadores de carácter morfológico y de comportamiento aplicados a las larvas de C. caementarius: llenado intestinal, estado de la glándula digestiva, desarrollo branquial, comportamiento natatorio y respuesta fototáctica. Estos indicadores, permitieron determinar el estado de condición y calidad de las larvas de C. caementarius, logrando un efectivo seguimiento y asociación de cada uno de ellos, con cada estado de desarrollo larvario, estandarizando características deseables en las larvas y evidenciando resultados verificables, que permitan establecer un adecuado plan de seguimiento del cultivo, optimizar los protocolos de manejo y de alimentación de las larvas. Además de cada indicador, fue posible desglosar una amplia gama de potenciales estudios a realizar, basados en las relaciones que la morfología y el comportamiento larvario mantienen con las capacidades fisiológicas de las larvas en desarrollo.

espanolDurante los meses de verano de tres anos consecutivos se estudiaron las caracteristicas fisicoquimicas de cuatro pozas efimeras, de poca profundidad y su fauna de invertebrados. El muestreo de los invertebrados se llevo a cabo por succion del agua con una maquina de bombeo. Desde el punto de vista fisicoquimico, las pozas estudiadas resultaron ser microlimnotopos heliotopicos, mesotroficos y mesopoikilohalinos. Su estratificacion termica resulto ser de caracter monomictico, con pocos grados de diferencia termica entre la superficie y el fondo. Se encontro que sus caracteristicas quimicas las situan entre habitats dulceacuicolas y verdaderamente salinos. Las pozas mostraron alto contenido de fosfato, Ca y sulfato, seguido por los niveles de fluoruro, Fe, K, Mg, Cl y nitrato. El contenido de los solidos totales suspendidos fue igualmente alto. Por el contrario, el contenido de bicarbonato y CN fue bajo. Al parecer, las propiedades geoquimicas de las montanas que rodean a la vega juegan un papel importante en la hidroquimica de estos cuerpos de agua. En general, las abundancias totales por taxon fueron bajas. Se registraron cinco taxones superiores. Cladoceros (e.g., Alona spp.), seguido por los dipteros quironomidos y los copepodos ciclopoideos y harpacticoideos fueron los grupos dominantes. Grupos menos abundantes fueron los anfipodos (e.g., Hyperia spp.) y los ostracodos Cyprididae. Algunos de los taxones reportados en este trabajo se registran por primera vez en este tipo de habitat. Sin embargo, debido a sus caracteristicas, se necesitan estudios con una resolucion taxonomica mas fina con el fin de dilucidar la presencia de generos o especies propias de estos sistemas. En comparacion con los cuerpos loticos encontrados en la zona, las pozas arrojaron una menor riqueza taxonomica. Este resultado puede deberse a diferencias en la dinamica de las condiciones abioticas observadas entre los dos habitats. La variabilidad entre pozas, asociada a la abundancia, fue alta para la mayoria de los taxones registrados. Esta variabilidad puede ser un reflejo de la condicion general de la vega estudiada, lo que sugiere que estas pozas son fuente importante de la alta biodiversidad observada en estas unidades de paisaje. Como las vegas de la zona estan conectadas en red, tambien contribuyen a la biodiversidad de todo el sistema de montana. A partir de este argumento, resulta claro que las estrategias de conservacion de las vegas andinas necesitan incluir a estas pequenas unidades de paisaje. EnglishThe physical-chemical features of four temporary shallow ponds and their invertebrate fauna were studied during the summer months of three consecutive years. Invertebrate sampling was conducted by suction of pond water with a pump. From the physical-chemical point of view, the study ponds were heliotopic, mesotrophic and mesopoikilohaline microlimnotopes. Their thermal stratification is monomic-tic, with few degrees of difference in water temperature between surface and bottom. The chemical characteristics of pond water were in between those of freshwater and truly saline ponds. The study ponds exhibited high content of phosphate, Ca, and sulfate content, followed by fluoride, Fe, K, Mg, Cl, nitrate, and total suspended solids. They were low in bicarbonate and CN content. Apparently, the geochemical properties of the surrounding mountains play a role in the hydrochemistry of these water bodies. Total abundance per taxon was mostly low. We recorded five higher taxa. Cladocerans (e.g., Alona spp.), followed by dipterans (e.g., chironomid flies), and copepods (e.g., cyclopoids and harpactoids) were the dominant groups. Less abundant groups were amphipods (e.g., Hyperia spp.), and ostracods (e.g., Cyprididae). Some of the taxa reported in this work are recorded for first time in this type of habitat. Nevertheless, given the habitat characteristics, studies at finer taxonomic resolution are needed to search for site-specific genera or species. We obtained lower taxono-mic richness compared to lotic systems found in the area. This result may be due to differences in the dynamics of abiotic conditions observed between the two habitats. The variability in abundance among ponds was high for most of the recorded taxa. This variability may be a reflection of the general condition of the wet pasture we studied, suggesting that the ponds are important sources of the high biodiversity found in these landscape units. As the wet pastures of the area are networked, also contribute to biodiversity of the entire mountain system. From this, it is clear that conservation strategies of Andean wet pastures need to include these small landscape units.

Research has been in progress for several years on various aspects of the biology and ecology of the freshwater prawn Cryphiops caementarius, an inhabitant of rivers in northern Chile. The commercial value of this prawn fomented the accomplishment of studies on its reproduction and development with the aim of producing juveniles under controlled conditions, to be followed by growout to commercial size in managed culture systems. The present study describes larval culture of this species from eggs of gravid females obtained in the field, from the first developmental stage (Zoea I) through the first juvenile stage. The larvae were cultured at 25 °C in UV sterilized water at variable salinities based on the requirements of the developmental stages. Larvae were fed with Nannochloris, Isochrysis and Artemia nauplii as required. This report describes in detail the 18 larval stages of this prawn, as well as its first juvenile form.

The Chilean inland water crustaceans are characterized by a combination of endemic and cosmopolitan species: some occur throughout the territory of continental Chile, while others are restricted to specific latitudinal regions. This study examined the zoogeographical patterns exhibited by Chilean inland water crustaceans. We considered six regions: Northern Chile (18°-27°S), North-Central Chile (27°-30°S), Central Chile (30°-38°S), Northern Patagonia (38°-41°S), Central Patagonia (41°-51°S), and Southern Patagonia (51°-55°S), and these were identified based on literature records of inland water crustaceans. The classification analysis generated dendrograms for the following groups considered in this categories: all inland water crustaceans (Branchiopoda, Copepoda and Malacostraca), the zooplanktonic crustaceans (Branchiopoda and Copepoda), the Malacostraca alone, and each group separately. Analysis of total data and of the zooplankton group taxa alone revealed the existence of a main grouping consisting of the three Patagonian zones plus Central Chile, that is distinct from that of Northern Chile and North-Central Chile. Similarly, analysis of the malacostracan data revealed the existence of two main groups, one comprising the three Patagonian zones plus Central Chile, contrasted with a second group of Northern and North-Central Chile combined. Our results are in agreement with other panbiogeographical studies of South American crustaceans and insects. Possible factors responsible for generating this pattern are the dispersal and colonization potential of zooplanktonic crustaceans and the marked endemism of the malacostracans.

La extraccion indiscriminada y alteraciones del medio natural, han puesto en peligro de extincion al unico Palaemonido dulceacuicola de interes comercial, presente en aguas continentales chilenas. Aun cuando esta situacion, ha despertado el interes en estudios que permitan su reproduccion controlada en cautiverio, actualmente es escaso el conocimiento acerca de aspectos reproductivos basicos de esta especie. Dada su importancia, este trabajo describe y caracteriza el proceso completo de maduracion gonadal en hembras de Cryphiops caementarius , en base a cambios en la morfologia externa e interna del ovario. Hembras adultas extraidas del rio Limari, fueron disectadas y sus ovarios removidos y preparados para analisis histologicos. Tejido fibromuscular divide el tejido gonadal de cada lobulo en sacos ovaricos de forma semiconica (conos de maduracion), al interior del los cuales se encuentran ovocitos en diferentes estados de desarrollo de acuerdo a observaciones microscopicas de tamano, morfologia y tincion con H-E, las celulas reproductoras femeninas se clasificaron en seis tipos, ovogonias (Ov), ovocitos previtelogenicos tempranos (O1), ovocitos previtelogenicos tardios (O2), ovocitos vitelogenicos tempranos (O3), ovocitos vitelogenicos tardios (O4) y ovocitos Maduros (OM). El ciclo de madurez gonadal se dividio en cinco estados segun la cantidad y tipo de ovocitos presentes. Los estados 0 y I, corresponden a desovado y previtelogenesis. Los estados II y III a vitelogenesis temprana y vitelogenesis intermedia, mientras el estado IV corresponde a madurez avanzada. La presencia de ovogonias y ovocitos previtelogenicos junto a ovocitos completamente maduros en el estado de madurez avanzada, refleja la capacidad de esta especie de realizar ciclos consecutivos de madurez en intervalos cortos de tiempo.

Cryphiops caementarius (Molina 1782) (Decapoda: Palaemonidae), denominado camaron de rio del norte (Fig. 1), es la unica especie de la familia representada en Chile y su distribucion geografica esta restringida a los rios de la costa occidental de Peru y Chile desde los 10oS hasta los 32o 55´S. En Chile, esta especie habita principalmente los rios y quebradas que drenan las aguas de los contrafuertes cordilleranos y estuvo protegida durante un largo tiempo por una veda total. Sin embargo, la explotacion clandestina con extraccion desmedida se mantuvo por anos, llevando a la reduccion del tamano de las poblaciones de este decapodo y a la disminucion de la talla de los ejemplares extraidos. El deterioro de este recurso renovable motivo a la autoridad a revisar la normativa vigente y decretar el ano 1986 una nueva disposicion que impide la extraccion del recurso desde el 1 de diciembre y hasta el 30 de abril de cada ano. Estas normativa aumento el interes por conocer las etapas del ciclo biologico de esta especie. Desde los primeros trabajos sinopticos, numerosos han sido los intentos que se sucedieron en Peru y Chile y que han tenido como objeto estudiar su biologia, reproduccion, condiciones bioecologicas, habitat, composicion poblacional, migraciones, desarrollo larval y algunos realizados para intentar su cultivo artificial. Todos los estudios realizados, tanto en Peru como en Chile, son conducentes a conocer y comprender aspectos basicos y tecnologicos destinados a aportar para el establecimiento de sistemas artificiales de cultivo, que permitan reducir la presion extractiva que se realiza sobre el recurso intentando reemplazarla por una produccion artificial de juveniles. Esta revision pretende incluir la mayor cantidad de informacion disponible, con el proposito de reunir en una sola publicacion aquellos aspectos que permitan sentar bases solidas para comprender su comportamiento y poder reproducir artificialmente a la especie con fines de conservacion y acuicultura.