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Introduction: Lithium is one of the longest used drugs in psychiatry and is currently a mainstay in the long-term prophylaxis of bipolar disorder, preventing recurrent manic and depressive episodes. It also remains an important drug in the treatment of acute episodes of mania and depression. Out of the normothymic drugs, lithium has the greatest effect in preventing suicidal behavior. It also exhibits antiviral activity and in recent years evidence has also accumulated of the drug's neuroprotective properties. Aim of the study: The aim was to collect and analyze publications on the use of lithium in affective disorders, dementia and viral diseases, as well as its effect on reducing suicidal tendencies. Materials and Methods: The literature available in the PubMed database was reviewed, using the key words: "lithium"; "bipolar disorder"; "mania", "depression"; "suicidal risk", "side effects". Results: Chronic use of lithium in patients with bipolar disorder has an effect on preventing recurrence of manic and depressive episodes and can successfully last for 40 years or longer. Studies support the theory that long-term lithium pharmacotherapy has a significant impact on preventing suicidal tendencies among patients with affective disorders. In recent years, the antiviral and neuroprotective properties of the drug have also become known. Despite the rather high risk of overdose, as well as the occurrence of numerous side effects, lithium is still very often used in the treatment of affective disorders due to its high efficacy. Conclusions: Lithium has been one of the mainstays of psychopharmacology for several decades and is a precursor to mood-stabilizing drugs. In recent years evidence has also been collected for its potential use in non-psychiatric conditions. Conducting further research on lithium will certainly allow for wider use of the drug and a more thorough understanding of its mechanism of action.

Asthma, an inflammatory disease of the lower and upper airways, is one of the most common diseases in society. Depending on the source and the population studied, the percentage of asthma patients ranges from 5% to as high as 15%. The development of asthma is believed to be caused by an overlap between the body's personal propensity to develop the disease and environmental factors. For years, scientists have been studying the genetic basis of asthma. For several years they have had a new weapon in their arsenal - the GWAS method. The use of this method has enabled researchers to discover the relationship between gene variants found in patients and an increased risk of developing asthma.

Introduction and objective: The sun emits ultraviolet radiation in the UV-A, UV-B and UV-C ranges. Photoprotection is used to prevent the impact of this radiation on the skin. It effectively counteracts photoaging, photodermatoses and photocarcinogenesis. The aim of the study is to discuss the impact of UV radiation on the skin and the role of sun protection, also in special groups of patients - children and non-immunocompetent people. The article also presents a summary of data on the effect of sunscreens on vitamin D synthesis. Materials and methods: The literature was reviewed in the Pubmed, Google Scholar database and in the recommendations of the Polish Dermatological Society with the use of keywords. State of knowledge: Erythema is the most visible effect of sunburn, but exposure to UV radiation is primarily photocarcinogenesis or photoimmunosuppression. The SPF factor is the main determinant of the effectiveness of sunscreens, but effective protection against both UVB and UVA radiation is essential. Daily use of sunscreen reduces skin damage associated with exposure to light and does not negatively affect vitamin D synthesis. Conclusions: The basis of skin protection is using sunscreens, avoiding excessive exposure to solar radiation and using protective clothing, hats and sunglasses. Thanks to these activities, we can significantly reduce the number of cases of certain skin cancers. It is also important to remember that sun protection applies to everyone, especially children and non-immunocompetent people.

Introduction and purpose of the study: COVID-19 is a respiratory illness resulting from infection with the second coronavirus of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS-CoV-2. Lack of knowledge about the virus and fear of infection made it challenging for the media to communicate clearly and effectively about health risks. The purpose of our work was to discuss and summarize reports on this topic available in the literature in such a way as to increase the chances of effective and safe use of media messages in future emergencies. Current state of knowledge: During the pandemic, social networks were used to post information about potential health risks. Social media played a large role in the education process, both for schools and for volunteers or health care workers. However, it is important to keep in mind that the way information is spread on social media can be overwhelming for many health care workers. In addition, regular exposure to social media correlated with high odds of anxiety and depression. False reports about COVID - 19 vaccines undermined public confidence in vaccination especially during the period when the vaccines were introduced for distribution. Summary: Social media was one of the main sources of information after the pandemic outbreak. Thanks to platforms such as Twitter, it was possible to find relevant information from reliable authors. However, the phenomenon of infodemia should not be underestimated. Disinformation and conspiracy theories can have a negative impact on mental health. It is therefore crucial to understand the mechanisms and improve the systems that manage the flow of information.

In this review, current methods of treating Helicobacter pylori bacterial infection are discussed. H. pylori is one of the most common pathogens causing gastrointestinal discomfort. It is considered a major cause of peptic ulcer disease, stomach and duodenal cancer, and MALT lymphoma. The authors analyzed the results of clinical studies regarding the efficacy of various treatment regimens, such as quadruple therapy, triple therapy, therapy with probiotics, therapy with the addition of phytochemical compounds, and therapy with a single drug. In addition, indications for eradication therapy were discussed. The conclusions of the review indicate the need for an individualized approach to the treatment of H. pylori infection, taking into account the rapidly increasing antibiotic resistance and patient risk factors for eradication.

Introduction and purpose of the study: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth syndrome (SIBO) is a syndrome characterized by an increased number of bacteria in the small intestine. The condition causes many non-specific symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain and bloating. The purpose of this study is to review the current knowledge regarding treatment options for SIBO. Methodology: A literature review was conducted based on PubMed, GoogleScholar databases and American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) guidelines. Current knowledge: SIBO is a heterogeneous syndrome. Symptoms of bacterial overgrowth include bloating, abdominal pain and abnormal bowel motility. In more severe cases, patients may experience malabsorption leading to weight loss and malnutrition. SIBO can occur in healthy individuals, but very often accompanies other conditions. The primary test for diagnosis is non-invasive lactulose or glucose breath tests. For treatment, the antibiotic rifaximin is preferred. It exhibits a broad spectrum of activity and a low toxicity profile. Treatment may also include diet therapy and the use of probiotics. Summary: SIBO continues to be both a diagnostic and therapeutic problem. Effective treatment includes not only elimination of the bacteria but also treatment of predisposing conditions. Conclusions of the study show a positive effect of rifaximin on the reduction of SIBO symptoms and improvement of patients' quality of life. The use of certain probiotics has a proven effect. According to the currently available literature, the effectiveness of the low-FODMAP diet in SIBO is hypothetical and further studies are needed to unequivocally confirm its efficacy.

Background:Dementia is a progressive and irreversible disease entity that affects memory, verbal fluency, thinking and the performance of daily activities.The most common type of dementia is alzheimer's disease(AD).Currently, there are no specific therapies with established efficacy against cognitive decline or AD. Objective:The aim of this study is to summarize the current knowledge about the effectiveness of SGLT2 inhibitors(SGLT2i) in the treatment of cognitive disorders. Method and material:The article was created based on the PubMed database and the Polish Journal of Endocrinology.Articles were searched in English using the following keywords: SGLT2ihibitors;dementia;Alzheimer type 3 diabetes mellitus. State of knowledge:Patients with type 2 diabetes (TD2) are 1.5-2 times more likely to develop dementia than the general population.Dementia among diabetic patients is characterized by an earlier age of onset, slightly worse overall cognitive status and a higher prevalence of cognitive impairment in male patients.Diabetes and pre-diabetes shorten the time from the onset of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to the development of full-blown dementia. Conclusions:The use of SGLT2i is associated with reduced mortality from dementia, in contrast to insulin and sulfonylurea derivatives.SGLT2 inihibitors prevent cognitive impairment more potently than dipeptidylpeptidase-4 inhibitors. Taking empagliflozin for one month, is associated with improved cognitive function and increased scores on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment scale.

Introduction and objective: Epinephrine is the most important and primary drug that resuscitation team use to reverse cardiac arrest. The provision of epinephrine is currently suggested by both the American Heart Association and the European Resuscitation Council. It is vital to improving the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), however the evidence for the use of adrenaline in resuscitation is inconclusive. Materials and methods: The literature was reviewed in the Pubmed database, in the Via Medica Journals database, and in the guidelines of the Polish Society of Anesthesiology, European Resuscitation Council and the American Heart Association with the use of keywords. State of knowledge: There is a clear evidence of an association between epinephrine and increased return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). Its action is based on stimulation of alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors. Epinephrine have a role in resuscitation, during CPR it increases the probability of restoring cardiac activity with pulses, which is intermediate step toward long-term survival. However, there are conflicting results regarding long-term survival and functional recovery, particularly neurological outcome. Conclusions: Research shows that epinephrine administration in patients with cardiac arrest increases the chance of restoring spontaneous circulation and patient survival to hospital admission and discharge. However, there are arguments questioning the validity of using epinephrine in resuscitation. Publications show that the compound contributes to post-resuscitation syndrome, which reduces a patient's chance of long-term survival. There are a number of conflicting studies that vary widely in the results presented. The current evidence is insufficient to either confirm or exclude the efficacy of epinephrine, which is why it is still recommended in the latest resuscitation guidelines by the European Resuscitation Council (ERC 2021) and the American Heart Association (AHA 2020).

Introduction and objective: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus, which is responsible for an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). This pathogen is widespread worldwide causing a pandemic that has been going on for decades. Researches around the world are trying to end this situation and it seems that the greatest hope lies in finding an effective vaccine. It is important due to the fact that AIDS and its consequences are responsible even nowadays for death of many people infected around the world. The aim of this study was to provide the most important information about major HIV vaccine trials and efficacy of vaccine candidates. Materials and methods: For the purposes of writing this article, the available literature was reviewed. The database of medical publications – Pubmed datebase and other publicaly available books, database and online sites was searched, with the use of keywords such as HIV, HIV vaccine, HIV epidemiology. State of knowledge: According to review studies HIV vaccine trials has been going for 4 decades. Over 250 trials has been conducted since then, but unfortunately, none of them resulted in effective vaccine. The difficulties of this task are mainly connected with the nature of HIV virus. To date, one study has shown some effectiveness, but not enough to claim success. Other studies are ongoing around the world and more are planned. Conclusions: Developing an effective HIV vaccine is the clue to solving the problem, which is new HIV infections. Further researches, further research funding and international cooperation are needed to end this pandemic.

Introduction and objective: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are a group of chronic inflammatory diseases. Usually they affect young people, often during pregnancy. Insufficient knowledge about the evolution of the disease during pregnancy, as well as the effects of drugs used, often result in resignation from motherhood, while unfamiliarity with the principles of therapy or discontinuation of treatment during pregnancy are significant causes of obstetric failures. The aim of the study was to summarize the data available in the literature as well as recent reports, to enable a better understanding of the disease and care of pregnant women with IBD. Materials and methods: The literature was reviewed in the Pubmed database, in the Via Medica Journals database, and in the guidelines of the Polish Society of Gastroenterology with the use of keywords. State of knowledge: 85% of women with IBD become pregnant without complications, but the inflammation has a negative impact on both the course of pregnancy and the fetus itself. Complications, which often depend on the activity of the disease before and during pregnancy, may occur: i.e. premature birth, inadequate fetal weight, miscarriage, as well as complications in the child itself and flares of the underlying disease. Therefore, it is important to know rules of safe pharmacotherapy that apply before and after pregnancy in order to prevent the negative effects of the disease. Special situations caused by IBD, i.e. surgical or endoscopic procedures, can be successfully performed in pregnant patients with the observance of certain rules. Conclusions: Understanding the causes of complications that may occur in the patient and the child allows them to be prevented. Both for the mother's health and for a positive course of pregnancy, education and pregnancy planning, preceded by the change of medications to safe for the fetus, are extremely important.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, it is necessary to use some safety measures due to decrease spreading of the virus. One of them is introducing teleconsultations as a form of medical consultation. It allows patients to talk with the doctor without visiting the hospital.The aim of the study is to present the society’s opinion on teleconsultations and its most common disadvantages. The method of the study was an online survey, conducted on 68 people, whose answers were statistically analyzed.During the pandemic, 85% of the respondents took part in the teleconsultation. After thay, they rated quality of the teleconsultation form 1 to 5, where 5 was the highest rate. Only 26,8% of them rated their teleconsultation 5, 17,9% - 4, 16,1% - 3, 26,8% - 2 and 12,5% - 1. Most of the respondents decided to took part in the teleconsultation because they needed a prescription (53%).According to respondents’ opinion, the most important advantages of the teleconsultation are: ability to stay home (59,7%), lower risk of infection (35,8%), quick help (22,4%) and ability to have the prescription without going out (73,1%).The most important disadvantages were: lack of ability of physical examination (91%), problems with communication (40,3%), problems with describing their own symptoms (43,3%), problems with contacting a doctor (58,2%) and higher risk of wrong diagnosis (82,1%).Teleconsultations provide patients’ safety, however, they are associated with danger of the wrong diagnosis. Although, most patients (73%) would like to be able to take part in the teleconsultation after the pandemic. Because of that, it is crucial for modern medicine to improve the quality of teleconsultation and to learn, how to communicate with patients during the remote conversations.

Multiple sclerosis is the most commonly occurring inflammatory disease of the nervous system. It is estimated that over 2 million people suffer from this disease. Currently SM is untreatable, one can only try to stop the progression of the disease or reduce severity of the symptoms. There have been numerous studies on the effectiveness of other monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. A drug that offers a chance for a breakthrough in the treatment of multiple sclerosis is ocrelizumab. It is a monoclonal antibody directed against B lymphocytes expressing the CD20 antigen. Results of the studie confirm the efficacy of ocrelizumab in inhibiting ongoing nerve fiber degeneration and reducing the inflammation associated with it, as well as the near complete depletion of CD20+ B lymphocytes and partial depletion of CD20+ T lymphocytes. They also suggest that ocrelizumab is a safe and effective treatment for multiple sclerosis.Studies conducted on the therapeutic efficacy of ocrelizumab show that its effect on disease progression is superior compared to some current drugs. Ocrelizumab also has a similar safety profile to the currently used interferon β-1a. An important feature of ocrelizumab is its efficacy in the treatment of the primary progressive form of MS, where significant therapeutic efficacy with other drugs has not been seen to date.

To properly treat diseases related to the human psyche, the help of specialists in psychology or psychiatry is essential. Unfortunately, its use is often negatively perceived by society, which discourages people with mental disorders to use it. It was decided to examine the opinion of society on this issue. For this purpose, we used the original questionnaire " A Survey of public opinion on the use of psychological or psychiatric help", conducted among 238 people. The answers were statistically analyzed.The results of the questionnaire confirm the existence of the problem. In addition, more than 70% of the respondents believe that access to psychological or psychiatric help is not easy. Nearly 60% of the respondents criticized visits to a psychologist or psychiatrist, of which 37.9% were from people close to them. Only half of the respondents decided to use the help of a specialist, and 78% of them felt fear before the visit, associated with the diagnosis (33.6%), the ineffectiveness of therapy (25%), and the opinion of relatives (9.5%). Despite this, only 5.2% experienced a negative perception.The analysis of the literature indicates a large role of stigmatization of people with mental disorders as a factor influencing the occurrence of reluctance to seek help from psychologists or psychiatrists. The influence of gender and age on this state of affairs has also been noted.Increasing social awareness of the positive aspects of seeking help from psychologists or psychiatrists can significantly change public opinion on this issue. This can bring many benefits to people struggling with mental health problems, as well as reduce their fear of visiting a specialist.

Flu, while seemingly harmless, is actually much more dangerous. These include ubiquity, high contagiousness and the possibility of serious complications. The flu is associated with serious complications, especially in pregnancy. It includes increased rates of miscarriage, stillbirths, neonatal deaths, premature births, and decreased birth weight. The flu vaccine is an effective and safe preventive measure.According to WHO anti-flu vaccine is recommended to women in any trimester of the pregnancy. Research shows that vaccination during pregnancy is safe and does not cause foetal or maternal complications. Moreover, maternal antibodies cross the placenta and can protect infant against influenza up to 6 months. The most common reasons for refusing vaccines by pregnant women are hesitations and fear of adverse pregnancy outcome. Due to that it is important to increase the society’s awareness about flu complications during pregnancy as well for women and for children. Successful immunization of the society requires improving its vaccination behaviour and can benefit in reducing frequency of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

E-cigarettes were introduced as a new way of quitting smoking and became a popular alternative to regular cigarettes. For a long time, e-cigarettes were considered harmless, however year after a year, new facts about their adverse effects are being discovered. This year in the USA, using e-cigarettes caused a lot of deaths among their users because of the newly discovered disease called EVALI. According to this, we decided to make a research on awareness of dangers associated with using e-cigarettes. We prepared a survey with 283 responses and analyzed literature related to the topic. Responses showed that 71,4% used to smoke cigarettes. Moreover, 81,6% uses or has used e-cigarettes in the past, however, only 4,9% consider them harmless. The most common reasons for using e-cigarettes are: variety of liquid flavors (58,4%), desire to try something new (52,8%) and stress relief (32,9%). Quitting smoking was motivation only for 24,2% of responders. The fact that 72,3% do not plan to quit vaping is an alarming sign. Analysis of literature confirmed results of our survey, showing that there is a group of people using e-cigarettes although they have never smoked. Mostly they are under 20 years old. Results of our study imply the necessity of taking up actions aimed to increase society awareness of dangers associated with using e-cigarettes and to do more research on vaping side effects.