Search

ICT and particularly the Internet are increasingly affecting the way firms do their b usiness. Marketing is not an exception. Web marketing is acquiring momentum even for firms with a solid tradition of off‐line marketing as their managers have realized the full potential of the World Wide Web in attracting a sub stantial amount of potential customers while keeping costs down. Overall, our findings seem to suggest that ICT (more specifically b oth the restructuring of the web site, and the introduction and effective implementation of Internet b ased revenue management techniques) did partially matter for the Premier Hotels. Indeed ICT has had a positive impact on the performance of Premier Hotels only when associated with the strategic marketing approach underlying revenue management techniques.

This book provides an overview of state-of-the-art research in tourism management, by including 12 chapters from a diverse group of international academics. More specifically, the volume displays three key distinctive features. First, it recognizes the relevance of tourism as a major economic driver, especially during periods of economic crisis. Second, it contributes to the advancement of managerial knowledge and practice in the fast-growing tourism sector, by addressing a wide range of research questions with a specific focus on the role of performance and strategies at the destination and company level, and sustainability. Third and last, the volume is the outcome of the collective intellectual efforts of a number of international scholars, with dissimilar geographical roots and backgrounds. They cultivate original research on tourism management from a variety of theoretical perspectives, by adopting different epistemological paradigms and research methodologies or techniques, and multiple methods (theory building, experimental, and inductive case-based inquiries)

Tourism has experienced continued expansion and diversification over the last six decades, becoming one of the largest and fastest-growing sectors in the global economy, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2012). In spite of sporadic shocks, international tourist arrivals have recorded a virtually uninterrupted increase: from 277 million in 1980 to 1,138 million in 2014. The UNWTO estimates that international arrivals worldwide are expected to reach nearly 1.8 billion by the year 2030 (Tourism Towards 2030), resulting from an increase of 3.3 percent a year on average from 2010 to 2030. This shows how crucial the potential impact of tourism on individual destinations and companies is expected to be in the forthcoming years. Many factors, such as (1) development of mass transportation and motorization; (2) introduction and implementation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) applications in the tourism sector; (3) of world’s gross domestic product (GDP) increase coupled with the growth of disposable income to be allocated to travel; (4) improvement of security and rights for tourists; and (5) the process of globalization, have significantly contributed to expand the market for tourism activities (Mariani and Baggio, 2012; Mariani et al., 2014a, 2014b). The abovementioned and other factors vastly contribute to shaping a different institutional landscape and economic environment for a number of commercial players, such as hotels, airlines, destination management companies (DMCs), and travel intermediaries, such as travel agents and tour operators, conference venues, congress, convention and exhibition centers, convention bureaus, professional conference organizers (PCOs), and event planners. Moreover, firms in the tourism sector are confronted with increasing managerial challenges and have to deal with a competitive, turbulent, and fast-changing environment (Baggio et al., 2013; Mariani et al., 2013; Mariani et al., 2014b), wherein the adoption of new ICTs has contributed to modify the value chains of the supply side and generated a paradigm shift on the demand side (Buhalis and Law, 2008; Mariani et al., 2014b).

This papers proposes an refinement of the taxonomy of mobile apps in tourism roposed by Kennedy-Eden and Gretzel (2012) from two perspectives: a taxonomy on what services travel-related apps provide to the user and a taxonomy based on the functionalities. The taxonomies provide insights into app development trends as well as gaps in the mobile app landscape. A few emblematic case studies from European cities are analysed. Managerial and policy making implications are provided.

This paper investigates the online communication of the Italian World Heritage Sites (N=50) in terms of website management and related web marketing activities. We map the Italian WHSs managing official websites, analysing them with a content and functionalities benchmarking grid. Then, we illustrate the UNESCO-related websites by focusing on WHSs which, on the contrary, do not provide an official website. Furthermore, we triangulate the results stemming from the content and functionality analysis with phone interviews with site managers in order to investigate the approach to website management and related web marketing activities.

Lo spettacolo dal vivo e le organizzazioni che lo producono e distribuiscono, sono entrati a pieno titolo nel novero degli oggetti d'indagine degli studiosi di management solo recentemente, pur rappresentando realtà con una storia in molti casi lunga e consolidata e con un rilevante peso specifico, non solo simbolico, nel sistema produttivo complessivo dei paesi economicamente avanzati. Questo volume analizza nel dettaglio l’attività di produzione artistica di un particolare insieme di organizzazioni di spettacolo come i Teatri d'Opera italiani, con una particolare attenzione alle Fondazioni Lirico-Sinfoniche. Queste istituzioni musicali sono state esaminate enfatizzando la specificità del prodotto/servizio culturale che viene da esse erogato, tentando di capire quali forme di organizzazione del lavoro e di gestione dei processi produttivi possano essere più allineate alle caratteristiche tipiche dell'output finale. Il testo presenta un quadro chiaro ed analitico della situazione del comparto del teatro musicale italiano, illustrando alcuni dei più importanti trend in atto: le condizioni di precaria salute finanziaria e le enormi difficoltà nel conseguimento dell'equilibrio economico, aggravatesi a causa della riduzione del supporto finanziario pubblico; il passaggio da forme giuridiche e organizzative di tipo pubblicistico a forme di tipo privatistico, quali fondazioni e associazioni; il tentativo di introduzione di pratiche manageriali di matrice privatistica e di gestioni più “tecniche” e meno politiche; la ricerca di una più nitida visione strategica dell’attività complessiva.

На.вопрос.о.том,.можно.ли.говорить.о.сформировавшейся. теории.сетевых.форм.организации.бизнеса,.большинство.иссле- дователей. дает.отрицательный.ответ .Как.уже.подчеркивалось,.среди.ученых.нет.ни.еди- ного. подхода. к. определению. сетей. в. бизнесе,. ни. единой. общепринятой.методологии.их.изучения..Мы.имеем.дело.с.фор- мирующейся. теорией,.методологические.основы. которой. пока. остаются. расплывчатыми,. а. понятийный. аппарат,. как. бывает. с.любой. теорией. на. начальной. стадии.формирования,. требует. своего. развития,. выработки. единой. позиции. по. поводу. ряда. ключевых.понятий.

Managing Tourism in a Changing World provides an overview of state-of-the-art research surrounding today’s tourism management. Recognising the relevance of tourism activities as major economic drivers, this book offers a significant contribution to the advancement of managerial practice in the tourism field. It is the outcome of the collective intellectual efforts of a number of scholars, with dissimilar geographical roots and backgrounds, who cultivate original research on tourism management from a variety of perspectives (economic, managerial) and using multiple methods (theory building, experimental and inductive case-based inquiries). The book displays three key distinctive features. First, it recognises tourism activities as major economic drivers. Second, it offer a prolific heterogeneity of theoretical perspectives, methods and results. Finally it is the outcome of a collective intellectual effort. Researchers aim at contributing to the advancement of the managerial practice in the field, which is a distinctive trait of recent publications. While drawing on multiple theoretical perspectives and adopting different epistemological paradigms and methodologies, each chapter attempts to answer a wide range of research questions related to a number of relevant themes in the following fields: destination management, marketing and branding, inter-organizational dynamics and corporate social responsibility in the tourism sector.

The growing importance of tourism as a socioeconomic phenomenon, together with the understanding that even apparently profitable tourism companies and destinations endowed originally with the best assets (natural and cultural) could not survive the escalating international competition without good managerial practices (Crouch, 2011) has provided significant momentum for the development of the disciplinary field of tourism management in the last three decades.

This book provides an overview of state-of-the-art research in today’s tourism management, by including 12 chapters from a diverse international group of academics. More specifically the volume displays three key distinctive features: 1. recognizes the relevance of tourism and tourism activities as major economic drivers; 2. contributes to the advancement of managerial knowledge and practice in the fast growing tourism sector, trying to answer a wide range of research questions with a specific focus on the role of physical and digital networks and ICTs; 3. is the outcome of the collective intellectual efforts of a number of international scholars, with dissimilar geographical roots and back- grounds. They cultivate original research on tourism management from a variety of theoretical perspectives (economic, managerial), by adopting different epistemological paradigms and research methodologies or techniques, and multiple methods (theory building, experimental and inductive case-based inquiries).

Coopetition, namely the co-presence of cooperation and competition, is a new strategy that goes beyond the established business paradigms of competition and cooperation. This type of strategy is relevant in tourism destinations, for instance in theme parks, where competing, co-located companies also collaborate. In this paper, we address the temporal dynamics of interorganizational relationships in Finnish and Italian theme parks (i.e. Lapland and Riviera Romagnola). Our comparative study shows that cooperation and coopetition among tourism businesses often shift from a prevalently short-term basis to a long term one when public and private stakeholders understand the benefits accruing to cooperation in terms of enhancement of the brand image of the destination and attraction of a higher number of visitors, by leveraging the destination’s multifaceted assets.

By recognizing the importance of tourism as a socioeconomic phenomenon, this book has contributed to the advancement of the knowledge in the fields of tourism management, marketing, and development, with a specific focus on the role of physical and digital networks and Information and Communcation Technologies (ICTs). The first theme that can be identified is the importance of cooperative networks and collaborative ventures between the diverse and multifaceted stakeholders of a tourism destination. The second common theme that clearly emerges from the volume is the ever-increasing importance of digital networks and ICTs. ICTs not only are generating a major shift in the performance of individuals and companies involved in the tourism sector (e.g., by increasing efficiency and effectiveness in the reservation and booking processes), but also have a significant impact on the way individuals consume services and enjoy experiences in space and time. The third common topic is related to the importance and the role of network structures, be them digital (see Part I of the book) or physical (see Part II of the book). Their evolution inf luences a number of aspects crucial for the development of a tourism destination such as cooperation ( Chapters 8 and 9 ), performance ( Chapters 2 and 7 ), information ( Chapters 1 , 2 , 3 , and 6 ), and knowledge f lows ( Chapters 2 , 3 , and 6 ).

Tourism is playing an increasingly important role in today’s economic and social world. Among the very few activities with a consistent positive growth pattern, it is estimated to involve more that 1.5 billion people in 2020 by the United Nations World Tourism Organization’s long-term forecast. This implies that the potential impact of tourism on individual economies of the countries able to properly manage their destinations might be even more crucial in the near future. A number of factors, ranging from the development of mass transportation and motorization to the introduction and implementation of ICT applications in the tourism sector to the rhythm of increase of world GDP (and the increase in income to be allocated to travels) to the improvement of security and rights for tourists and the process of globalization, have significantly contributed to expand the market for tourism activities. These factors are significantly contributing to shaping a different institutional landscape and economic environment for a number of economic players such as Destination Management Companies, Airlines,Hotels, Conference Venues,Congress,Convention and Exhibition Centres, Convention Bureaus, and Professional Conference Organizers. Moreover, companies in the tourism sector are confronted with increasing managerial challenges and have to deal with a turbulent and fast-changing environment. The growing importance of tourism as a socioeconomic phenomenon, together with the understanding that even a destination endowed originally with the best assets (natural and cultural) could not survive the increasing international competition without good managerial practices, has provided significant momentum for the development of the disciplinary field of tourism management in the last two decades. While drawing on multiple theoretical perspectives and adopting different epistemological paradigms and research methodologies or techniques, we attempt to answer a wide range of research questions related to the relevant themes in destination management (destination branding for Slovenia is investigated by Maja Konecnik Ruzzier and Nusa Petek while importance– performance analysis for Australian destinations is examined by Tony Griffin and Deborah Edwards), hospitality management (heterogeneity in hotel production processes is analysed by Cristina Bernini and Andrea Guizzardi), inter-organizational dynamics in the tourism industry (coopetitive strategies among theme parks are scrutinized by Mika Kylanen and Marcello M. Mariani while franchising in the tourism sector is explored by Wojchech Czakon), corporate social responsibility (assessment systems for responsible tourism products and practices in tourism enterprises are discussed by Mara Manente, Valeria Minghetti, and Erica Mingotto), knowledge management (knowledge transfer among clustered tourism firms in Southern Brazil is illustrated by Ariani R. Stacke, Vladimir E. Hoffmann, and Helena A. Costa), and measurement of tourism flows (tourism flows from Russia to the European Union are probed by Kirill Furmanov, Olga Balaeva, and Marina Predvoditeleva).

Based on a triangulation of data stemming from the analysis of semi-structured interviews, Consumer Generated Content, and archival data, this paper explores why and how local Destination Management Organizations (DMOs) in Italy strategically employ the Web 2.0 to market their destinations. Moreover the article sheds light on the factors contributing to advanced level of social activity and finally identifies several best managerial practices in the use of social media by Italian regional DMOs. Our preliminary findings indicate that the adoption of social media is still in its early years for many Italian regional Destination Management Organizations (DMOs) which use social media without a real awareness of their actual potential. More specifically, the study shows that social media strategies vary significantly across Italian regional DMOs and only a few DMOs (namely the ones located in the Tuscany, Emilia-Romagna, Trentino, Apulia, Sicily and Marche regions) effectively deploy the Web 2.0. As clear from the analysis of the level of social activity generated through Facebook and Tweeter, the regions with the most active Community Manager (such as Emilia-Romagna, Piedmont and Marche) are also the ones which apparently generate the highest degree of tourists’ satisfaction with social activity by DMOs. Last but not least, it appears that social media represent just a further tool that is being juxtaposed to the traditional marketing tools, without replacing them tout court.

Over the last six decades, tourism has experienced continued expansion and diversification, becoming one of the largest and fastest-growing economic sectors in the world (United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2012). More specifically, in spite of sporadic shocks, international tourist arrivals have recorded a virtually uninterrupted increase: from 277 million in 1980 to 983 million in 2011. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) in its most updated long-term outlook of future tourism trends (Tourism Towards 2030) estimates that international arrivals worldwide are expected to reach nearly 1.8 billion by the year 2030 (an increase by 3.3% a year on average from 2010 to 2030). Cultural Heritage has played and is playing a crucial role for the development of tourism worldwide: not only Cultural Heritage generates cultural value, but it also yields economic value. In fact archaeological and historic sites, museums and monuments besides displaying an intrinsic economic value are also able to generate further economic value through their commercial exploitation as tourist attractions.

Based on in-depth semi-structured interviews with 127 buyers from the Russian Federation, this paper illustrates several critical and peculiar issues of decision making processes by Russian travel agents and tour operators in building Italy-based (and more specifically Emilia Romagna-based) tour packages. The findings indicate that Italy as a tourism destination displays several major strengths such as the variety of its offer (featuring history and culture as well as eno-gastronomic assets) and the lifestyle and hospitality of its people. Moreover it seems that after the first Italy-based package tour (that mainly includes the classic Italian arts cities and Emilia-Romagna as well) most of Russian tourists prefer to go back to Italy and either buy a tour featuring different destinations or construct a trip by themselves. Major weaknesses of the Italian supply include the poor value for money especially on the Riviera Romagnola, the lack of professionalism of local tourism operators (e.g., the scarce proficiency in the Russian language or the delay in replying to e-mail and inquiries), the inadequacy of websites, the unreliability of Italian standards of hotel classifications. The aforementioned issues are more relevant for the Southern part than for the Northern part of Italy for which a focus is provided by analyzing the Emilia-Romagna region (top Italian destination for Russian tourists in Italy). Last but not least, we found that the purchasing behaviour of Russian travel agents and tour operators is mediated by their direct experience – as tourists – of Italy. Accordingly it appears that more effort should be direct towards the construction of effective educational tours for perspective buyers.

Coopetition, namely the co-presence of cooperation and competition is a new strategy that goes beyond the established business paradigms of competition and cooperation. This type of strategy is increasingly relevant in tourism destinations, for instance in tourism resorts and theme parks, where competing, co-located companies also collaborate. The purpose of our paper is to discuss interorganisational practices of spatially competing co-located actors and organizations. In particular, we address temporal, spatial and process dynamics through which cooperative and/or coopetitive arrangements are formed, maintained, discontinued or resumed. We have studied Italian and Finnish tourism destinations in the regions of Riviera Romagnola and Lapland. Our comparative study shows that cooperation and coopetition among tourism businesses often shift from a prevalently short-term basis to a long term one when public and private stakeholders understand the benefits accruing to cooperation in terms of enhancement of the brand image of the destination and attraction of a higher number of visitors, by leveraging the destination’s multifaceted assets. Last but not least, we contribute to the discussions of coopetition strategy and management studies, tourism management, and practice-theoretical approach

The article presents a study which examined the trends in the managerial freedom and organizational capability of Italian performing arts group Teatro Comunale di Bologna after its privatization. I assessed the effect of inflexible and unalterable permanent staff as well as high contractual viscosity and rigidity on the ability of the group to accomplish its artistic mandate efficiently. The research methodology used consisted of semistructured interviews, archival documents and press accounts, and observation of operatic shows production/preparation processes.

Coopetition, namely the co-presence of cooperation and competition is a new strategy that goes beyond the established business paradigms of competition and cooperation. This type of strategy is relevant in tourism destinations where competing, co-located companies also collaborate. In this paper we address the temporal, spatial and processual dynamics of interorganizational relationships in Italian and Finnish tourism destinations (i.e., Riviera Romagnola and Lapland). Our comparative study shows that cooperation and coopetition among tourism businesses often shift from a prevalently short-term basis to a long term one when public and private stakeholders understand the benefits accruing to cooperation in terms of enhancement of the brand image of the destination and attraction of a higher number of visitors, by leveraging the destination’s multifaceted assets

In the burgeoning coopetition strategy literature, scarce attention has been paid so far to the role of coopetitive system of value creation in entrepreneurial contexts. With the aim of epitomizing a coopetitive system of value creation, we draw attention to the fact that coopetition does not simply emerge from coupling competition and cooperation issues, but it rather implies that cooperation and competition merge together to form a new kind of strategic interdependence between firms. Accordingly, coopetition strategy concerns interfirm strategy that allows the firms involved to manage a partially convergent interest and goal structure and to create value by means of coopetitive advantage. Drawing on a parsimonious set of theoretical antecedents (Dagnino and Padula, 2002; Dagnino and Mariani, 2007; Padula and Dagnino, 2007), this paper elaborates a comprehensive framework where the emergence of coopetition is linked to the configuration process of entrepreneurial strategies. In more detail, the paper focuses on the strategic role of the entrepreneurial firm in bridging the gap between the capability space and the opportunity space, by characterizing entrepreneurial coopetitive strategies according to the required objectives of execution vs innovation. Consequently, we show how coopetition can be the appropriate blaze to spark value creation in entrepreneurial contexts, where entrepreneurial firms have to select their strategic courses of action by capturing the right and well-timed opportunities frequently making use of limited capability base. Finally, the notion of coopetitive analysis, where the actors involved interact coopetitively, is introduced and illustrated as an appealing tool effective to recognize the potential for creating and sustaining coopetitive advantage in shifting entrepreneurial contexts. A few business mini-cases, where coopetition emerges in a variety of entrepreneurial contexts, illustrate how coopetitive analysis can be supportive of entrepreneurial strategies under the budding regìme of coopetition.

Building on an in-depth understanding of the constituting elements of intellectual capital in creative industries, this study provides theoretical insights on the major drivers of organizational performance and innovation capabilities for performing arts organizations. More specifically, it: 1) adopts an intellectual capital framework to explain organizational performance and innovation in the creative industries in general and performing arts in particular; 2) refines extant models explaining organizational performance in the creative industries by proposing brand-new research hypotheses that suggest how intellectual capital affects both the performance and the innovation capabilities of a specific subset of performing arts organizations: opera companies; 3) provides a valid tool to test the aforementioned hypotheses. By adopting a qualitative approach to the study of performing arts organizations, this paper: 1) develops new (and refines extant) hypotheses on the relationships between intellectual capital attributes and on one hand the dimensions of performance typical in the performing arts (financial, commercial, artistic) and on the other hand the types of innovation that can take place in the operatic sector; 2) generates a questionnaire useful to empirically test the aforementioned hypotheses and model .

Con il termine extra-FUS gli operatori indicano le risorse destinate ad attività di spettacolo non assegnate attraverso il Fondo unico. Il quadro delle risorse extra-FUS appare estremamente frammentario, difficile da ricostruire e, probabilmente per questo, scarsamente indagato in modo completo. La pluralità delle fonti riportate in calce alle tabelle delle pagine che seguono palesa l’assenza di un processo di monitoraggio costante e unitario della totalità delle risorse dedicate allo spettacolo a livello centrale. Il reperimento dei dati è stato effettuato, per quanto possibile, a partire da fonti primarie (diversi uffici amministrativi del ministero dei Beni e delle attività culturali). In un solo caso – fondi BNL – l’analisi si è basata sui dati riportati dalla Relazione sull’utilizzazione del FUS. Il fatto di aver consultato e comparato dati provenienti da diversi uffici, unitamente al fatto di essersi basati sia su fonti primarie che secondarie, espone la ricerca al rischio di sommare dati raccolti seguendo criteri tra loro diversi. Inoltre sarebbe azzardato affermare che la presente analisi fornisca un quadro completo della totalità dei contributi statali allo spettacolo, dal momento che sono assenti, ad esempio, eventuali finanziamenti alle attività di spettacolo assegnati da altri ministeri. Tuttavia, nonostante i limiti evidenziati, il metodo implementato rappresenta l’unica strada percorribile allo stato attuale.

La Relazione sull’utilizzazione del FUS è lo strumento informativo con il quale il dipartimento per lo Spettacolo, attraverso l’Osservatorio, rende pubblici i dati relativi al sostegno ministeriale allo spettacolo. Un’analisi sul FUS non può prescindere quindi da una lettura dettagliata della più completa fonte di informazioni su questo tema. Bisogna poi considerare che i diretti destinatari della Relazione sono i parlamentari; di conseguenza i contenuti e le riflessioni della Relazione dovrebbero costituire la base per eccellenza dei dibattiti su uno degli aspetti della politica culturale del paese. Dato l’importante ruolo della Relazione, si propone di seguito una riflessione sugli argomenti da essa trattati. Questa riflessione non vuole essere una semplice ripetizione del sommario, ma uno strumento di lettura critica volto ad individuare quelle elaborazioni e quei commenti che mirano a suggerire o ad orientare il decisore politico, piuttosto che a descrivere semplicemente lo stato dell’arte. Da una riflessione sui contenuti si passerà poi a valutare la trasparenza, la coerenza interna, la completezza e l’utilità dell’unico strumento di rendicontazione del FUS.

Drawing on the acknowledged distinction between deliberate and emergent strategies, this chapter focuses on the formation of both coopetition and cooperation as unintended and therefore emergent strategies. More precisely, multiple case studies have been conducted on two different consortium of opera companies, one in Australia and the other in Italy, in order to elucidate the role played by the institutional environment in triggering both cooperative and coopetitive strategies. The goal is to demonstrate that coopetition and cooperation can result from an unintended strategic process induced by the external institutional environment. This chapter offers some advances to the literature on coopetition. On the one hand, it deepens the analysis on the generative processes of coopetitive strategies, introducing the distinction between imposed cooperation and induced coopetition. On the other hand, similarities and differences between emergent cooperative and coopetitive strategies originated both in the Australian and in the Italian contexts are presented and examined in terms of strategic learning, drawing implications for both management and cultural policy makers. The chapter consists of six sections. Section two reviews the literature on coopetition strategy and the distinction between deliberate and emergent strategies. The third section illustrates the research setting and describes the qualitative research methodology. The fourth and fifth sections present the main events and environmental changes that have contributed to shaping the decisions of respectively the Australian and Italian opera companies under consideration. The sixth and last section draws the main implications stemming from the analysis, and discusses the main limitations of the study.

Recentemente il dibattito sul sostegno pubblico allo spettacolo è stato animato dalla questione della devoluzione del Fondo unico per lo spettacolo dallo stato alle regioni. Con la riforma del 2002 del titolo V della Costituzione in chiave federalista, lo spettacolo è stato inserito tra le materie a legislazione concorrente, vale a dire tra quelle attività la cui potestà legislativa spetta alle regioni, salvo che per la determinazione dei principi fondamentali, riservata alla legislazione dello stato. Senza voler qui entrare nel merito della questione giuridica, preme sottolineare come questa riforma potrebbe determinare secondo alcuni la fine del finanziamento pubblico allo spettacolo gestito a livello centrale per lasciar spazio alle regioni in questa materia. Ad oggi, nel 2008, il dibattito riguardante l’opportunità, le modalità e i tempi con cui questo dovrebbe realizzarsi è più che mai acceso. Va detto che lo spettacolo viene già sostenuto a livello regionale e, in aggiunta, anche a livello provinciale e comunale attraverso canali specifici di finanziamento propri di ogni livello amministrativo. In altre parole non è infrequente in Italia trovare iniziative di spettacolo finanziate contemporaneamente da stato, regione e comune, a testimonianza di un impegno pubblico a più livelli nel sostegno dello spettacolo. L’impegno di regioni e comuni (soprattutto) e province (in maniera minore) sembra tra l’altro in aumento, anche in ragione del decremento in cui è incorso il FUS fino al 2005.

The study is a preliminary comparative analysis of cultural policy towards the European classical music sector with an in-depth economic perspective rooted in empirical research. The research describes funding and financial trends, governance mechanisms and organizational structures of more than 150 publicly subsidized classical music institutions – ie live classical music organizations (LCMOs) – operating in six European countries (Italy, France, Germany, Poland, Sweden, UK) over the last ten years. The trends and statistics are analyzed not only by looking at the actual structures, but also by researching the perceptions and viewpoints of relevant experts and professionals in the sector.

In chiusura di questa prima parte del rapporto dedicata al Fondo unico per lo spettacolo si ritiene opportuno riprendere le più importanti criticità emerse nel corso dell’analisi del sistema FUS e illustrate nei capitoli precedenti. L’approccio utilizzato (l’analisi della normativa, coniugata ad un’analisi quantitativa dei dati di finanziamento e ad un’analisi delle procedure e delle prassi del processo di assegnazione delle risorse) ha permesso di evidenziare specificità e criticità del sistema FUS, sia sul piano dei fenomeni (ovvero delle evidenze empiriche a partire dai dati di finanziamento), sia sul piano normativo e procedurale nell’allocazione delle risorse. Punto di partenza della nostra analisi è stata la Relazione sull’utilizzazione del FUS degli anni 2003, 2004 e 2005. Come si è visto nel capitolo 2, la Relazione offre una rendicontazione sostanzialmente precisa e completa dell’insieme dei finanziamenti assegnati allo spettacolo, unitamente ad una descrizione dettagliata della normativa di ogni settore. La Relazione si presenta come uno strumento efficace per un primo studio sulla distribuzione del FUS tra i vari comparti e settori di spettacolo, ma non si rivela uno strumento adeguato o sufficiente per entrare nel merito delle scelte di finanziamento, per due ragioni: in primo luogo, la Relazione elabora esclusivamente i dati relativi ai progetti ammessi al contributo e, in secondo luogo, predilige come unità di analisi il settore.

La Relazione sull’utilizzazione del FUS è lo strumento informativo con il quale il dipartimento per lo Spettacolo, attraverso l’Osservatorio, rende pubblici i dati relativi al sostegno ministeriale allo spettacolo. Un’analisi sul FUS non può prescindere quindi da una lettura dettagliata della più completa fonte di informazioni su questo tema. Bisogna poi considerare che i diretti destinatari della Relazione sono i parlamentari; di conseguenza i contenuti e le riflessioni della Relazione dovrebbero costituire la base per eccellenza dei dibattiti su uno degli aspetti della politica culturale del paese. Dato l’importante ruolo della Relazione, si propone di seguito una riflessione sugli argomenti da essa trattati. Questa riflessione non vuole essere una semplice ripetizione del sommario, ma uno strumento di lettura critica volto ad individuare quelle elaborazioni e quei commenti che mirano a suggerire o ad orientare il decisore politico, piuttosto che a descrivere semplicemente lo stato dell’arte. Da una riflessione sui contenuti si passerà poi a valutare la trasparenza, la coerenza interna, la completezza e l’utilità dell’unico strumento di rendicontazione del FUS. Entrando nel vivo dell’analisi, la Relazione 2005 è costituita da:¬ – una parte generale, nella quale vengono descritte le caratteristiche generali del FUS (normativa di riferimento, andamento del Fondo negli anni ecc.) e le principali tendenze relative alla domanda (spettatori, spesa del pubblico ecc.); – cinque sezioni di dettaglio, nelle quali viene descritto l’utilizzo del Fondo nei vari comparti (FLS e Attività musicali, Attività teatrali, Attività di danza, Attività circensi e Attività cinematografiche); – una parte di appendice, nella quale viene riportato l’elenco di tutti i progetti beneficiari ed il relativo contributo ottenuto.

L’obiettivo del presente capitolo è fornire un’analisi comparata sull’economicità del comparto Fondazioni lirico-sinfoniche. L’approfondimento su questo comparto è giustificato dall’importanza delle Fondazioni nel panorama musicale italiano anche alla luce dell’ingente quota di fondi pubblici di cui queste organizzazioni risultano beneficiarie (il 47% del FUS nel 2005). L’analisi si è sviluppata a partire da dati primari di eccezionale rilevanza: sono infatti stati raccolti e analizzati i bilanci di esercizio relativi agli anni 1999, 2002, 2005. L’elaborato è strutturato come segue. Dopo una sintetica presentazione dei punti salienti del dibattito sulle Fondazioni lirico- sinfoniche (par. 1), viene proposta un’analisi dei conti economici delle Fondazioni (par. 2). Attraverso tale analisi si è tentato di evidenziare, in ottica comparata, il ruolo svolto dai vari livelli amministrativi (stato, regioni, province e comuni) e dai privati, nel recupero delle perdite strutturali generate dalle Fondazioni. Successivamente, si propone una rappresentazione analitica attraverso una sorta di grafico di posizionamento relativo alle singole Fondazioni effettuata in base alla dipendenza dal finanziamento pubblico da una parte, e al livello di performance dall’altra. Quest’ultimo, a causa dell’assenza di dati sufficientemente confrontabili tra le Fondazioni, è stato operazionalizzato, in via esplorativa molto più che perfettibile, attraverso il numero di recite relative al core business delle Fondazioni (opera, sinfonica, camera, balletto). La categorizzazione effettuata, nonostante dimostri alcuni limiti metodologici (che si auspica superabili in futuro), consente di indagare le specificità di ogni Fondazione. Sia l’analisi comparata del grado di intervento dei vari livelli amministrativi che la categorizzazione sono state svolte sul 2005 e in un’ottica dinamica – sul settennato 1999-2005. Il paragrafo 3 è infine dedicato all’analisi degli stati patrimoniali delle Fondazioni lirico-sinfoniche. Tutte le analisi sono stata svolte su 13 Fondazioni e poggiano, per diversi aspetti metodologici relativi alla ricostruzione di parte dei dati contabili, su un contributo di Mariani [2005; 2008b]. Il Teatro Petruzzelli di Bari è stato escluso in quanto finanziato da fondi Lotto anziché FUS e poiché registra livelli di costi e di attività molto inferiori rispetto al resto del comparto.

Questo articolo descrive, in un’ottica comparata, i cicli di vita di due progetti di spettacolo operistico realizzati dal Teatro Comunale di Bo-logna e dal consorzio di teatri di Livorno, Lucca e Pisa, mettendone in evidenza analogie e differenze e sottolineandone peculiari aspetti organizzativi e criticità gestionali. In particolare l’articolo mostra co-me organizzazioni musicali nelle quali la realizzazione di uno spetta-colo (operistico) si è basata per decenni (se non per secoli) su una tra-dizione organizzativa consolidata e su una tecnologia di produzione tendenzialmente stabile nel tempo, possano attivare percorsi organiz-zativi e gestionali alternativi, comunque potenzialmente improntati ad una logica di efficacia e/o di efficienza.

This article focuses on the formation of both co-opetition and cooperation as unintended and therefore emergent strategies. More precisely, it elucidates the role played by the institutional environment (e.g., the cultural policy makers) in triggering both cooperative and coopetitive strategies in the opera houses sector of three different countries (Australia, Germany, and Italy). By shifting the unit of observation from the organizations involved in coopetitive arrangements to the very processes of formation of coopetitive strategies, I introduce the brand-new concept of induced coopetition, discussing its relationship with imposed cooperation and underlining its relevance from a public management perspective.

Aquest article se centra en la formació de la coopetència (co-opetition) i la cooperació com a estratègies no intencionades i, per tant, emergents. Més precisament, aclareix el paper que té l’entorn institucional (per exemple, els dissenyadors de les polítiques culturals) a l’hora de fomentar estratègies cooperatives i coopetitives en el sector dels teatres d’òpera de tres països diferents (Austràlia, Alemanya i Itàlia). En desplaçar el punt d’observació de les organitzacions que participen en acords coopetitius als propis processos de formació de les estratègies coopetitives, introdueixo el nou concepte de coopetència induïda (induced co-opetition), analitzo quina relació té amb la cooperació imposada i en destaco la rellevància des de la perspectiva de la gestió pública.

In this study we propose the theoretical development of a performance measurement system (PMS) for organizations operating in the performing arts sector. We adopted an intellectual capital (IC) approach to develop the proposed PMS. In particular, the aim of this paper is twofold in that it seeks: 1) to analyze the role IC plays in the performing arts organizations and 2) to propose research hypotheses that may suggest the impact IC has on the performance of these organizations.

Tramite l’analisi di dati di costo (aggregati e di dettaglio) opportunamente triangolati con interviste e osservazioni dirette dei processi di produzione, questo articolo illustra alcune caratteristiche peculiari delle modalità di gestione delle risorse umane, delle dinamiche di organizzazione del lavoro e dei processi di monitoraggio e misurazione dei costi del personale del Teatro Comunale di Bologna. Si sottolinea come dotazioni di personale (soprattutto nell’area artistica) sovradimensionate rispetto alle reali esigenze strutturali, elevata viscosità contrattuale e sindacale, usi e consuetudini di matrice pubblicistica nella gestione delle risorse umane, scarsa accountingization relativa ai costi del personale, contribuiscano a ridurre i gradi di libertà del management e la capacità dell’organizzazione di far fronte in maniera efficace ed efficiente al proprio task artistico-culturale.

In the advancing coopetition strategy literature, firms are often seen as organizations making coopetitive arrangements in an intentional fashion. Drawing on the received distinction between deliberate and emergent strategies, this paper innovatively analyzes the formation of coopetition as an unintended and therefore emergent strategy. More specifically, an in-depth case study on a renowned consortium of Italian opera houses is proposed to illustrate the role played by the external environment (e.g., the institutional one) in triggering coopetitive strategies through the imposition of cooperation. Accordingly, the specific strategic learning processes that actually intervene in the formation of coopetition are identified, and the two related brand-new concepts of imposed cooperation and induced coopetition are introduced and discussed.

Building on the hypothesis that firm strategy is fundamentally a dynamic process of gap bridging between capability space and opportunity space, this article investigates the strategic role of the firm in influencing the coevolution of the capability space and the opportunity space. In more detail, it contributes to strategy literature by introducing and discussing a typological distinction of a few dynamic gap sets (i.e., potential gap set, realized gap set, deliberate gap set, emergent gap set), which are deployed in a comprehensive conceptual framework underscoring the causes and consequences of the gap sets evolution. Additionally, the framework proposed is able to shed new light on the distinction between deliberate and emergent strategies and to reconnect them to the objectives of innovation and execution they aim to achieve. This intellectual effort allows to synthesizing the dichotomy, already familiar to strategy analysis, between strategy formulation and strategy implementation and to enhance the hermeneutic and interpretive capacity of the conceptual backbone of this work. In an integrative fashion, whereas strategy formulation refers to the firm’s mindful predisposition of the capabilities required to bridge the strategy gap between capabilities and opportunities, strategy implementation is concerned with the ‘real’ operational closure of the strategy gap.

Moving from the assumption that firm strategy is a fundamentally dynamic process of coevolutionary gap bridging between capability space and opportunity space (i.e., the strategy gap), this theoretical paper focuses on some of the factors leading to a successful closure of the strategy gap. In more detail, drawing on the received concept of Capability Lifecycle (CLC), it introduces the notion of Modal Capability Lifecycle (MCLC). The MCLC is defined as the statistical prevalence, for a generic firm ‘F’ in a given time period, of capabilities that are in a particular stage (i.e., 80% of the capabilities of the firm ‘F’ could be in a founding stage rather than in the maturity one). Accordingly, the study advances a novel connection between the Modal Capability Lifecycle for the generic firm ‘F’ and its effectiveness and success in closing the strategy gap given the opportunity space conditions and ultimately in constantly securing a collection of strategic opportunities

Building on the assumption that firm strategy is a fundamentally dynamic process of gap bridging between capability space and opportunity space, this article emphasizes the importance of firm multilevel learning processes for the coevolution of the capability space and the opportunity space. In more detail, it depicts a conceptual framework which underscores how the processes of organizational learning have an essential integrating role in bridging the strategy gap, and hooks up a novel and dynamic connection between organizational learning and realized gaps, which is to be seen as the pulsating outcome of a coevolutionary process which is partly deliberate and partly emergent. The incorporation of a cognitive and learning dimension as a supplement to the economic one renders it possible to take into account the importance of the firm’s perception of the opportunity space and the capability space. More specifically, the fact that the firm’s perception of capabilities and opportunities could be biased or subjective (generating a distinction between the capabilities/opportunities perceived and the actual capabilities/opportunities), allows us to introduce and discuss a pair of original concepts: the perceived strategy gap as opposed to the actual strategy gap. In addition to bearing important consequences on the declination of the dynamic gap bridging process into deliberate versus emergent, the introduction of the perception dimension proffers a way of investigating and understanding how the coevolutionary processes of capability space and opportunity space expansion/contraction are partially guided by firm multilevel learning and adaptation, which enable it to renew and redeploy its capabilities in relation to the evolution of strategic opportunities

Questo articolo descrive, in un’ottica comparata, i cicli di vita di due progetti di spettacolo operistico realizzati dal Teatro Comunale di Bologna e dal consorzio di teatri di Livorno, Lucca e Pisa, mettendone in evidenza analogie e differenze e sottolineandone peculiari aspetti organizzativi e criticità gestionali. In particolare l’articolo mostra come organizzazioni musicali nelle quali la realizzazione di uno spettacolo (operistico) si è basata per decenni (se non per secoli) su una tradizione organizzativa consolidata e su una tecnologia di produzione tendenzialmente stabile nel tempo, possano attivare percorsi organizzativi e gestionali alternativi, comunque potenzialmente improntati ad una logica di efficacia e/o di efficienza

Questo articolo illustra alcune caratteristiche peculiari delle modalità di gestione delle risorse umane, delle dinamiche di organizzazione del lavoro e dei processi di monitoraggio e misurazione dei costi del personale del Teatro Comunale di Bologna. In particolare, attraverso l’analisi di dati di costo (aggregati e di dettaglio) opportunamente triangolati con interviste e osservazioni dirette dei processi di produzione, si evidenzia come il recente processo di privatizzazione che ha interessato gli Enti Lirici italiani ed in particolare il teatro oggetto di studio, sia stato scarsamente efficace sotto il profilo della accountability e della accountingization relative ai costi del personale. Si sottolinea infine come dotazioni di personale (soprattutto nell’area artistica) sovradimensionate rispetto alle reali esigenze strutturali, elevata viscosità contrattuale e sindacale, usi e consuetudini di matrice pubblicistica nella gestione delle risorse umane, contribuiscano a ridurre la capacità dell’organizzazione di far fronte in maniera efficace ed efficiente al proprio task artistico-culturale.

Negli ultimi dieci anni è cresciuta in maniera esponenziale l’attenzione degli studiosi di economia e gestione aziendale per le organizzazioni di spettacolo dal vivo in generale e per il teatro musicale in particolare , con una intensificazione della produzione scientifica orientata sia alla misurazione della performance lato sensu (non solo finanziaria ma anche artistico-culturale) sia alle sue implicazioni in termini di rendicontabilità (accountability) per le singole organizzazioni teatrali . In Italia quest’attenzione sembra aver subito un effetto moltiplicativo a causa della recente trasformazione degli Enti Lirici in fondazioni di diritto privato - innescata dal D.Lgs. 367/96 - che ha catalizzato gli sforzi intellettuali di numerosi studiosi su numerose problematiche, quali quelle di governance, di sostenibilità e di efficienza/efficacia. Complessivamente, se è noto che il teatro musicale, come tutte le organizzazioni culturali, ha obiettivi ampi quali la formazione e l’arricchimento culturale del pubblico , è altrettanto vero che esso non può fare a meno di svolgere la propria attività sotto il permanente vincolo dell’equilibrio economico-finanziario teso a preservarne la solidità patrimoniale e l’autosostenibilità. In tal senso, sulla scorta di Nova, si ritiene che l’interpretazione dei dati di bilancio rappresenti un momento imprescindibile al fine di valutare correttamente lo stato di salute economico-finanziaria delle organizzazioni in questione . Ciò risulta di particolare interesse per il “settore” delle Fondazioni Lirico-Sinfoniche italiane, per le quali numerosi esperti cominciano insistentemente a parlare di “sopravvivenza in pericolo” . Lo scopo del presente studio è quello di caratterizzare le strutture economiche e patrimoniali delle organizzazioni sopraccitate in un’ottica dinamica lungo i quattro anni successivi alla trasformazione in fondazioni di diritto privato, rilevandone le specificità rispetto alle medie settoriali e identificando possibili analogie e differenze, ma senza alcun velleitario tentativo di misurazione della performance tout court. Nel secondo paragrafo viene descritto il contesto empirico dello studio e vengono illustrati gli schemi di riclassificazione adottati e le misure selezionate. Nel terzo e nel quarto paragrafo vengono svolte rispettivamente un’analisi della struttura patrimoniale ed un’indagine sulla struttura economica delle Fondazioni Lirico-Sinfoniche lungo il quadriennio di riferimento. Il quinto paragrafo elucida i principali trend settoriali sulla base dell’evidenza emersa dall’analisi condotta, illustrando le conclusioni ed identificando alcuni limiti dello studio e spunti per ulteriori approfondimenti.

The extension of the managerial logic to music organizations often generates deep conflicts and lack of understanding between management practitioners and artistic directors. This paper suggests that there is not a one-best way to manage efficiently music programs and organizations. Rather it seems that different alternatives of labour organizations and cost management should be taken into account in order to better handle the trade-off between efficiency and effectiveness in managing sets of music shows. The paper focuses on a wide variety of music programs, without any aspiration to thoroughly describe the continuum along which real-world music programs typically fall but rather synthesizing their variety in a typology of music shows useful in addressing the attention of management on the relevant issues they could face and in identifying the potential economic implications of their choices. This typology is based on a three dimensional theoretical framework in which the issues of managing 1) the Time to Premiere, 2) the individual performances after the Premiere and 3) the portfolio of shows, are recognized as crucial elements in order to derive valuable managerial implications

In coopetition strategy literature, firms are often seen as organizations adopting coopetitive arrangements in an intentional fashion. Drawing on the received distinction between deliberate and emergent strategies, this paper provides new insights on the formation of coopetition as an unintended and therefore emergent strategy. In more detail, an in-depth case-study on a renowned consortium of Italian Opera Houses is carried out to illustrate the role played by the external environment (e.g., the institutional one) in triggering coopetitive strategies through the imposition of cooperation. Accordingly, the brand-new concepts of imposed cooperation and induced coopetition are introduced and discussed.

Management of arts and cultural organizations has recently gained importance especially in those countries with a rich cultural heritage. This is even truer in the performing arts sector where poor public funding for institutions has imposed severe budget constraints and pushed them to seek financial interventions of foundations, private investors and commercial sponsors. Recent studies have focused on the privatization trend involving cultural organizations and several others to their performance measurement, but none of them has addressed the significant trends of Opera Houses performance after their privatization. The main contribution of the paper consists of a survey of Italian Opera Houses after their transformation into foundations of private law. Applying a parsimonious number of pre-theorized financial performance indicators, the study suggests on the one hand that privatization has lead, with a few exceptions, to a general increase in overall contribution for Opera Houses and, on the other hand, to a better self-financing attitude towards employees salaries. Issues related to demand-side and back-office effectiveness are argued as well.

Management of arts and cultural organizations has recently gained importance especially in those countries with a rich cultural heritage. This is even truer in the performing arts sector where poor funding for institutions has imposed severe budget constraints and pushed them to seek financial interventions of foundations, private investors and commercial sponsors. Recent studies have focused on cultural organizations performance measurement and only a small number of them on Opera Houses performance measurement. The main contribution of the paper is that of a critical review and an enlargement of performance indicator systems proposed for cultural organizations in national and international literature and concretely adopted by managers of Opera Houses. We reflect on the multidimensional nature of PIs and their ambivalence, concluding they should be incorporated into a complete, synthetic, not ambiguous, consistent and unitary system. Such a system should be a sort of management tableau de bord, functional for: 1) strategic conduction/planning and operative control, 2) communication of performance results to external stakeholders, 3) comparative performance evaluation through benchmarking.

Building on the hypothesis that firm strategy is fundamentally a dynamic process of gap bridging between capability space and opportunity space, this article investigates upon the strategic role of the firm in influencing the coevolution of the capability space and the opportunity space. In more detail, it contributes to strategy literature by introducing and discussing a typological distinction of a few dynamic gap sets (i.e., potential gap set, realized gap set, deliberate gap set, emergent gap set), which are deployed in a comprehensive conceptual framework underscoring the causes and consequences of the gap sets evolution. Additionally, the framework proposed is able to shed new light on the distinction between deliberate and emergent strategies and to reconnect them to the objectives of innovation and execution they are aimed to achieve. This intellectual effort proffers a way of synthesizing the dichotomy, already familiar to strategy analysis, between strategy formulation and strategy implementation and to enhance the hermeneutic and interpretive capacity of the conceptual backbone. In an integrative fashion, whereas strategy formulation refers to the firm’s mindful predisposition of the capabilities required to bridge the strategy gap between capabilities and opportunities, strategy implementation is concerned with the ‘real’ operational closure of the strategy gap.

This chapter explores marketing and network management issues pertaining to cultural routes (CRs). Based on a multiple case study of five cultural routes, the chapter provides a comparison of marketing and network management approaches and practices. We identify similarities and differences in marketing and managing CRs, while trying to identify several managerial practices. Based on the case analysis, we build a conceptual framework to describe the nature of collaborative marketing and network management at the CR level, with a focus on the multiple stakeholders (public, private, non-profit) and countries involved. Finally yet importantly, we provide implications for both researchers and practitioners interested in marketing and managing CRs.