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Background Functional motor disorders (FMDs) are highly disabling conditions associated with long-term disability, poor quality of life, and economic burden on health and social care. While multidisciplinary 5-days rehabilitation programs have been shown to reduce motor and non-motor symptoms, long-term management and monitoring in FMDs remain an unmet need. Aim To compare a 12-weeks telemedicine program against a 12-weeks self-management program after a 5-days rehabilitation program for improving motor, non-motor symptoms, quality of life, and perception of change in patients with FMDs. Methods The study population was 64 consecutive patients with a definite diagnosis of FMDs who underwent a 5-days in-person rehabilitation program followed by either a self-management (the first 32 patients) or a telemedicine program (the latter 32 patients). Validated measures of motor and non-motor symptoms such as fatigue and pain, quality of life, perception of change, gait, and postural control were recorded before (T0), after completion of rehabilitation (T1), and then again at 3 months (T2). Results Improvement at 3-month follow-up assessment of motor symptoms (p p = 0.028), and self-rated change perception (p = 0.043) was greater in the telemedicine group. No different between-groups effect was found on other dimensions of fatigue, pain, physical and mental health, and gait and postural control. Conclusions Long-term management and expert monitoring of patients with FMDs via telemedicine may enhance long-term outcomes in motor symptoms and physical fatigue, with a positive long-term impact on self-rated health perception of change.

BACKGROUND: Rehabilitation has proven effective in improving motor symptoms (i.e., weakness, tremor, gait and balance disorders) in patients with Functional Motor Disorders (FMDs). Its effects on non-motor symptoms (NMSs) such as fatigue, pain, depression, anxiety and alexithymia, have not been explored yet. OBJECTIVE: To explore the effects of a validated inpatient 5-day rehabilitation program, followed by a home-based self-management plan on functional motor symptoms, NMSs, self-rated perception of change, and quality of life (QoL). METHODS: 33 FMD patients were enrolled. Measures for motor symptoms and NMSs were primary outcomes. Secondary outcomes included measures of self-perception of change and QoL. Patients were evaluated pre-treatment (T0), post-treatment (T1), and 3-month follow-up (T2). RESULTS: There was an overall significant decrease in functional motor symptoms, general, physical, and reduced-activity fatigue (for all, p

Every day our sensory systems perceive and integrate a variety of stimuli containing information vital for our survival. Pain acts as a protective warning system, eliciting a response to remove harmful stimuli; it may also be a symptom of an illness or present as a disease itself. There is a growing need for additional pain-relieving therapies involving the multisensory integration of smell and taste in pain modulation, an approach that may provide new strategies for the treatment and management of pain. While pain, smell, and taste share common features and are strongly linked to emotion and cognition, their interaction has been poorly explored. In this review, we provide an overview of the literature on pain modulation by olfactory and gustatory substances. It includes adult human studies investigating measures of pain threshold, tolerance, intensity, and/or unpleasantness. Due to the limited number of studies currently available, we have structured this review as a narrative in which we comment on experimentally induced and clinical pain separately on pain-smell and pain-taste interaction. Inconsistent study findings notwithstanding, pain, smell, and taste seem to interact at both the behavioral and the neural levels. Pain intensity and unpleasantness seem to be affected more by olfactory substances, whereas pain threshold and tolerance are influenced by gustatory substances. Few pilot studies to date have investigated these effects in clinical populations. While the current results are promising for the future, more evidence is needed to elucidate the link between the chemical senses and pain. Doing so has the potential to improve and develop novel options for pain treatment.

Background Pain is a subjective experience characterized by sensory (intensity) and emotional (unpleasantness) aspects. Although literature reports behavioural effects on pain due to smell and taste influence, to our knowledge the relationship between tonic pain induced by a capsaicin cream and these chemosensory systems has never been explored before. The aim of this study was to investigate the modulation of olfactory and gustatory substances having different valence on tonic pain perception mediated by a capsaicin cream application. Methods Sixty healthy volunteers were included in two separated experiments (N = 30 smell; N = 30 taste) and underwent different valence smell and taste stimulations, while receiving painful stimuli. Perception of pain intensity (the sensory component) and unpleasantness (the affective component) was measured with a numerical rating scale, both during the two aforementioned experiments. Results Pain unpleasantness rating showed differences only in the smell experiment between the two odourous conditions. In particular, pleasant odour induced lower ratings of pain unpleasantness, while no significant results were found for intensity. Regarding taste, we could not observe significant effects nor for pain unpleasantness or intensity. Conclusions These findings highlight the potential role of pleasant odours in influencing the affective aspects of pain perception induced by this kind of tonic pain. Such evidence might provide new insight for using chemosensory substances as analgesics for modulating the cognitive aspects of neuropathic pain. Significance This work shows the effect of smell on the emotional component of tonic pain, experimentally induced by capsaicin cream application. Previous literature investigated tonic pain in interaction with smell and/or taste stimuli, but mainly with physical methods such as temperature. Our findings add new information in this field, contributing to a deeper insight on the role of olfaction on this particular kind of tonic pain perception. This approach could open to new investigations aimed to consider odours for pain management.

Functional Movement Disorders (FMDs) might exacerbate in stressful conditions. As the global health emergency due to Covid-19 rise and multiple waves hit the Italian population, the recurrent severe restrictions' periods imposed could represent important triggers and worsen the symptoms of FMDs. Through a follow-up study, we compare results on Motor Symptoms (MS), Non-Motor Symptoms (NMS), and Global Health Status (GHS) of two surveys, one referred to the first Covid-19 wave and the other to the third Covid-19 wave.60 FMDs patients responded to an online survey after the first and the third Covid-19 waves in Italy. Questions regarding sociodemographic, clinical and Covid-19 information, MS, NMS, and GHS were collected to assess severity of symptoms and changes in comparison to a period with less severe social restrictions.Patients showed minimal to mild motor symptoms' severity, and substantial stability through time in all collected measures, both for severity and changes of MS, NMS, and GHS in comparison at two time points (Patients did not show a vulnerability due to the recurrent restrictions' periods: MS, NMS and GHS did not vary in comparison to the first wave, confirming the previous results and highlighting the role of the social context in those disorders. Further investigations are required to better disentangle the relationship between stressful events, motor symptoms, and pain.

This article describes a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a supervised online delivery of self-help plus (SH+), during the second wave of COVID-19 contagions in Northern Italy. The SH+ is a psychological intervention developed by the World Health Organization to increase a person's ability to deal with stress. In this trial, it was tested primarily as a tool to reduce anxiety and post-traumatic symptomatology in workers of residential nursing and care homes. In order to partial out non-specific effects of the intervention, the SH+ was compared to an equally supervised and structured alternative activity. Secondarily, in view of future emergencies, the potential of SH+ as a tool to reduce perceived stress, increase subjective well-being and foster individual resilience was explored. At post-intervention, the preregistered analysis revealed no difference in self-reported anxiety and/or post-traumatic symptomatology between the group receiving the SH+ and the group engaged in an alternative activity. Some specific and positive effects of the SH+ intervention were only found on self-reported intervention effectiveness and engagement in exploratory analyses. These findings raise the question whether the previously documented effectiveness of the SH+ on self-reported symptomatology and on the prevention of psychiatric conditions could be attributed mostly to non-specific rather than specific factors connected with participant enrolment in a psychological intervention. Indeed, the effects of the SH+ had been previously compared only to the effects of not being engaged in any alternative activity (often described in the literature as ‘treatment as usual’—or ‘enhanced treatment as usual’, when some relevant information is given to the control group as a one-off). Given the negative findings of this study, before the SH+ is implemented in clinical practice, further studies should be conducted to examine its short- and long-term beneficial effects, by means of randomized studies that employ alternative but similarly structured interventions as control conditions, aiming to minimize the confounding effect of non-specific factors.

Dementia is a global public health problem and its impact is bound to increase in the next decades, with a rapidly aging world population. Dementia is by no means an obligatory outcome of aging, although its incidence increases exponentially in old age, and its onset may be insidious as a certain amount of non-pathological cognitive decline can be expected with aging. In the absence of unequivocal biomarkers, the accuracy of cognitive profiling plays a fundamental role in the diagnosis of this condition. Here we highlight the utility of brief global cognitive tests in this diagnostic process, from the initial detection stage for which they are designed, to the differential diagnosis of dementia. We also argue that neuropsychological training and expertise are critical in order for the information gathered from these omnibus cognitive tests to be used in an efficient and effective way, and thus, ultimately, for them to have such a utility .

Introduction We tested the hypothesis that functional limb weakness is associated with possible dysfunction of the central processing of proprioceptive information, by evaluating the amount of tonic vibration reflex (TVR) and the perception of the TVR movement. Methods The study sample was 20 patients with functional weakness of the lower and/or the upper limbs and 25 healthy controls; delivery of 92-Hz transcutaneous vibration of the biceps brachii tendon of the unrestrained arm stimulated predominantly the muscle spindle afferent and elicited elbow flexion (tonic vibration reflex, TVR). Blindfolded participants had to match the final position of the vibrated arm with their contralateral tracking arm. The TVR and perception of the TVR movement were measured as angle movements of the vibrated arm and the tracking arm, respectively. Results The magnitude of the TVR of the vibrated arm and movement perception of the TVR of the tracking arm were significantly reduced in the patients compared to the controls. No correlation was found between magnitude of the TVR and perception of the TVR movement, suggesting that the abnormalities were independent of each other. Moreover, the abnormalities did not differ between the patients with/without bilateral upper limb involvement or between the affected and the unaffected side in patients with unilateral impairment, suggesting that the observed deficits are independent of motor impairment. Conclusions Proprioceptive dysfunction may underlie alterations in body movement and in sense of agency in such patients and may play a role in the pathophysiology of functional limb weakness.

Previous evidence from neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies suggests functional specialization for tools and related semantic knowledge in a left frontoparietal network. It is still debated whether these areas are involved in the representation of rudimentary movement-relevant knowledge regardless of semantic domains (animate vs. inanimate) or categories (tools vs. nontool objects). Here, we used fMRI to record brain activity while 13 volunteers performed two semantic judgment tasks on visually presented items from three different categories: animals, tools, and nontool objects. Participants had to judge two distinct semantic features: whether two items typically move in a similar way (e.g., a fan and a windmill move in circular motion) or whether they are usually found in the same environment (e.g., a seesaw and a swing are found in a playground). We investigated differences in overall activation (which areas are involved) as well as representational content (which information is encoded) across semantic features and categories. Results of voxel-wise mass univariate analysis showed that, regardless of semantic category, a dissociation emerges between processing information on prototypical location (involving the anterior temporal cortex and the angular gyrus) and movement (linked to left inferior parietal and frontal activation). Multivoxel pattern correlation analyses confirmed the representational segregation of networks encoding task- and category-related aspects of semantic processing. Taken together, these findings suggest that the left frontoparietal network is recruited to process movement properties of items (including both biological and nonbiological motion) regardless of their semantic category.

Background Pain perception is a multimodal experience composed of sensory, emotional and cognitive dimensions. Accumulating evidence suggests that the chemical senses can influence pain perception, but their relation with phasic pain is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of smell and taste having different valence on phasic pain. Methods Twenty-eight healthy volunteers received sweet, bitter and neutral odours or gustatory substances while receiving painful stimuli consisting of electrical shocks. Tactile threshold, pain threshold and pain tolerance were collected using the psychophysical method of limits at baseline and in association with smell and taste. Perception of pain intensity and unpleasantness was measured with a numerical rating scale. Results Sweet smell induced lower ratings of pain intensity than bitter smell when stimuli were delivered at pain threshold. Sweet smell also induced lower ratings of pain unpleasantness than neutral smell when stimuli were delivered at pain tolerance. Sweet taste induced lower ratings of pain unpleasantness than bitter taste when stimuli were delivered at pain threshold. Conversely, pain threshold and pain tolerance per se were not affected by smell and taste. Conclusions These findings highlight an effect of sweet substances in reducing the subjective perception of pain intensity and unpleasantness associated to phasic pain. Significance By demonstrating the link between smell, taste and phasic pain this study may have a translational impact in clinical conditions characterized by so-called shock-like pain, such as neuropathic pain.

Objective Emotional difficulties are common in functional movement disorders (FMD), yet their contribution to the disease remains unclear. We explored the potential role of emotional difficulties as risk and maintaining factors of FMD by looking at the effect of emotions on attention. Method The dot-probe task was used to investigate attentional biases induced by emotional faces in 25 patients with FMD and 25 healthy controls (HC). A pair of faces, one emotional (happy, angry, sad) and the other neutral, was displayed on a monitor to either the left or the right side of a central fixation cross. The face disappeared and a dot was flashed in place of one of the faces. Participants had to indicate the location of the dot. All participants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Psychological assessment of 23 patients also involved the Short Form Health Survey, the Hamilton Anxiety and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scales. Results A general attentional bias away from emotional faces was noted for the FMD group compared to the HC. A more fine-tuned analysis revealed an attentional bias specifically away from sad faces for the FMD. Conclusion Our findings suggest a specific effect of emotions on attention in FMD that likely involves avoidance of sadness. Since this was not related to alexithymia or mood, we excluded these factors in explaining the results. Attentional bias away from sad faces correlated with general health, suggesting that avoidance of sadness might contribute to the perception of a better general health status in FMD.

Neurosyphilis is rather an unusual cause of dementia characterized by a rapidly progressive course and psychiatric symptoms. Diagnosis of neurosyphilis should be suspected in the presence of a global cognitive impairment consisting in disorientation, amnesia and severe impairment of speech and judgement and psychiatric symptoms such as depression, mania and psychosis, with a subacute onset. More commonly, clinical manifestations of neurosyphilis include general PARESIS (involvement of Personality, Affect, Reflexes, Eye, Sensorium, Intellect and Speech). Upon clinical suspicion, diagnosis of neurosyphilis is confirmed by a reactive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-Venereal Disease Research Laboratory. Here we report three Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-negative male patients presenting with psychiatric symptoms and a rapidly evolving dementia. Although magnetic resonance imaging did not address to diagnosis, CSF examination was mandatory in neurosyphilis diagnosis. Other diagnostic tools such as neuropsychology and single-photon emission computed tomography resulted supportive in the diagnosis. We showed that a prompt antibiotic treatment might stop disease progression. Therefore, neurosyphilis should be always considered even in HIV-negative patients in the presence of unexpected psychiatric symptoms accompanied by a rapidly evolving cognitive decline.

A structural representation of the hand embedding information about the identity and relative position of fingers is necessary to counting routines. It may also support associations between numbers and allocentric spatial codes that predictably interact with other known numerical spatial representations, such as the mental number line (MNL). In this study, 48 Western participants whose typical counting routine proceeded from thumb-to-little on both hands performed magnitude and parity binary judgments. Response keys were pressed either with the right index and middle fingers or with the left index and middle fingers in separate blocks. 24 participants responded with either hands in prone posture (i.e., palm down) and 24 participants responded with either hands in supine (i.e., palm up) posture. When hands were in prone posture, the counting direction of the left hand conflicted with the direction of the left–right MNL, whereas the counting direction of the right hand was consistent with it. When hands were in supine posture, the opposite was true. If systematic associations existed between relative number magnitude and an allocentric spatial representation of the finger series within each hand, as predicted on the basis of counting habits, interactions would be expected between hand posture and a unimanual version of the spatial–numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect. Data revealed that with hands in prone posture a unimanual SNARC effect was present for the right hand, and with hands in supine posture a unimanual SNARC effect was present for the left hand. We propose that a posture-invariant body structural representation of the finger series provides a relevant frame of reference, a within-hand directional vector, that is associated to simple number processing. Such frame of reference can significantly interact with stimulus–response correspondence effects, like the SNARC, that have been typically attributed to the mapping of numbers on a left-to-right mental line.