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Investigation of the relationship between inflammation and energy metabolism is important for understanding biology of chronic noncommunicable diseases. Use of metformin, a drug for treatment of diabetes, is considered as a promising direction for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and other neuropathologies with an inflammatory component. Astrocytes play an important role in the regulation of energy metabolism and neuroinflammation; therefore, we studied the effect of metformin on the cellular responses of primary rat astrocytes cultured in a medium with high glucose concentration (22.5 mM, 48-h incubation). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to stimulate inflammation. The effects of metformin were assessed by monitoring changes in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and synthesis of oxylipins, assayed with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Changes at the intracellular level were assessed by analyzing phosphorylation of ERK kinase and transcription factor STAT3, as well as enzymes mediating oxylipin synthesis, cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX). It was found that, independent on glucose concentration, metformin reduced the LPS-stimulated release of cytokines IL-1β and IL-6, decreased activity of the transcription factor STAT3, ERK kinase, synthesis of the derivatives of the cyclooxygenase branch of metabolism of oxylipins and anandamide, and did not affect formation of ROS. The study of energy phenotype of the cells showed that metformin activated glycolysis and inhibited mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation, independent on LPS stimulation and cell cultivation at high glucose concentration. Thus, it has been shown that metformin exhibits anti-inflammatory effects, and its effect on the synthesis of cytokines, prostaglandins, and other lipid mediators could determine beneficial effects of metformin in models of neuropathology.

Supplementary Figure 5 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Discussion from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Figure 2 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Figure Legends 1-5,Table Legends 1-8 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Figure 3 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Figure 4 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Figure 1 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Table 4 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Methods from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Table 6 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Table 8 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Table 2 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Table 1 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Supplementary Table 5 from Coexpression Network Analysis Identifies Transcriptional Modules Related to Proastrocytic Differentiation and Sprouty Signaling in Glioma

Using the previously developed rabbit model of perioperative dry eye syndrome (PDES) and quantitative mass spectrometric technique it is shown that the development of corneal erosion under conditions of general anesthesia is associated with changes in the content of inflammatory metabolites, namely, derivatives of linoleic (LA), alpha-linolenic (ALA), and arachidonic (AA) acids in tear fluid. The increase in the content of the metabolites of LA and ALA is found to be the most significant, while the content of AA derivatives (with the exception of 12-HETE) remains almost unchanged, indicating the key roles of the LA and ALA cascades in the inflammatory response in PDES. The increase in the concentration of oxylipins that can be formed by nonenzymatic oxidation of LA (9-KODE) or its processing by cytochromes (12,13-EpOME) under oxidative conditions indicates a significant contribution of oxidative stress to the development of PDES. The majority of metabolites of LA (13-HODE and 9-HODE), ALA (9-HOTrE and 13-HOTrE) and AA (12-HETE), the tear content of which was changed in PDES, are generated by the enzymes of lipoxygenase family. By contrast, the concentration of cyclooxygenase products does not exhibit any significant fluctuations. These data suggest a low therapeutic potential of cyclooxygenase inhibitors (such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and a high therapeutic potential of antioxidants and lipoxygenase inhibitors in PDES, which should be taken into account upon developing a complex therapy for this disease.

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is one of the key polymer components of the extracellular matrix; it can exert different effects on intracellular signaling depending on its molecular weight. We compared the effects of low (LMW) and high molecular weight (HMW) HA polymers on the ability of primary astrocytes, glial brain cells, to release into the extracellular medium omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids, docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA), as well as omega-6 unsaturated arachidonic acid (AA), which were determined by HPLC-MS/MS. It was shown that upon the addition of LMW HA for 4.5 h the concentration of AA reduced. HMW HA did not affect the release of AA but increased the release of DHA and EPA. Adaptation of the cells for 48 h to the action of the HA polymers of different molecular weights led to a decrease in the release of omega-3 and omega-6 unsaturated fatty acids by astrocytes. A comparison of the ability of HA to modulate astrocyte responses to stimulation by Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists showed that HA affected TLR4-stimulated induction of IL-1β proinflammatory marker gene after 0.5-h exposure to LMW HA and HMW HA followed by further stimulation with TLR4 agonist for 4 h. Thus, the release of polyunsaturated fatty acids in astrocytes was sensitive to HA and depended on the molecular weight of the polymers; long (48 h) exposure to HA led to adaptation of astrocytes; HA differently affected the release of omega-6 (AA) and omega-3 (DHA) unsaturated fatty acids, indicating a difference in the mechanisms of their release. As DHA is believed to perform anti-inflammatory and protective functions in the brain, these findings open up prospects for appliance of HA polymers as modulators of inflammatory responses of astrocytes.

Conduct a reanalysis of transcriptome data for studying intracellular signaling or solving other experimental problems is becoming increasingly popular. Gene expression data are archived as microarray or RNA-seq datasets mainly in two public databases: Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and ArrayExpress (AE). These databases were not initially intended to systematically search datasets, making it challenging to conduct a secondary study. Therefore, we have created the ARGEOS service, which has the following advantages that facilitate the search: (1) Users can simultaneously send several requests that are supposed to be used for systematic searches, and it is possible to correct the requests, (2) advanced analysis of information about the dataset is available. The service collects detailed protocols, information on the number of datasets, analyzes the availability of raw data, and provides other reference information. All this contributes to both rapid data analysis with the search for the most relevant datasets and to the systematic search with detailed analysis of the information of the datasets. The efficiency of the service is shown in the example of analyzing transcriptome data of activated (polarized) cells. We have performed a systematic search of studies of cell polarization (when cells are exposed to different immune stimuli). The web interface for ARGEOS is user-friendly and straightforward. It can be used by a person who is not familiar with database searching.

Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) metabolism is currently a focus in cancer research due to PUFAs functioning as structural components of the membrane matrix, as fuel sources for energy production, and as sources of secondary messengers, so called oxylipins, important players of inflammatory processes. Although breast cancer (BC) is the leading cause of cancer death among women worldwide, no systematic study of PUFA metabolism as a system of interrelated processes in this disease has been carried out. Here, we implemented a Boruta-based feature selection algorithm to determine the list of most important PUFA metabolism genes altered in breast cancer tissues compared with in normal tissues. A rank-based Random Forest (RF) model was built on the selected gene list (33 genes) and applied to predict the cancer phenotype to ascertain the PUFA genes involved in cancerogenesis. It showed high-performance of dichotomic classification (balanced accuracy of 0.94, ROC AUC 0.99) We also retrieved a list of the important PUFA genes (46 genes) that differed between molecular subtypes at the level of breast cancer molecular subtypes. The balanced accuracy of the classification model built on the specified genes was 0.82, while the ROC AUC for the sensitivity analysis was 0.85. Specific patterns of PUFA metabolic changes were obtained for each molecular subtype of breast cancer. These results show evidence that (1) PUFA metabolism genes are critical for the pathogenesis of breast cancer; (2) BC subtypes differ in PUFA metabolism genes expression; and (3) the lists of genes selected in the models are enriched with genes involved in the metabolism of signaling lipids.

Simple Summary Analysis of the eye liquids collected from a cohort of primary open-angle glaucoma patients identified signaling lipids, the pattern of which suggests a role of arachidonic acid/platelet activating-factor (PAF)-dependent pathways and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of the disease and provides novel targets for its diagnostics and treatment. Abstract Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is characterized by degeneration of retinal ganglion cells associated with an increase in intraocular pressure (IOP) due to hindered aqueous humor (AH) drainage through the trabecular meshwork and uveoscleral pathway. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and oxylipins are signaling lipids regulating neuroinflammation, neuronal survival and AH outflow. Among them, prostaglandins have been previously implicated in glaucoma and employed for its treatment. This study addressed the role of signaling lipids in glaucoma by determining their changes in AH accompanying IOP growth and progression of the disease. Eye liquids were collected from patients with POAG of different stages and cataract patients without glaucoma. Lipids were identified and quantified by UPLC-MS/MS. The compounds discriminating glaucoma groups were recognized using ANCOVA and PLS-DA statistic approaches and their biosynthetic pathways were predicted by bioinformatics. Among 22 signaling lipids identified in AH, stage/IOP-dependent alterations in glaucoma were provided by a small set of mediators, including 12,13-DiHOME, 9- and 13-HODE/KODE, arachidonic acid and lyso-PAF. These observations correlated with the expression of cytochromes P450 (CYPs) and phospholipases A2 in the ocular tissues. Interestingly, tear fluid exhibited similar lipidomic alterations in POAG. Overall, POAG may involve arachidonic acid/PAF-dependent pathways and oxidative stress as evidenced from an increase in its markers, KODEs and 12,13-DiHOME. The latter is a product of CYPs, one of which, CYP1B1, is known as POAG and primary congenital glaucoma-associated gene. These data provide novel targets for glaucoma treatment. Oxylipin content of tear fluid may have diagnostic value in POAG.

Recently, manipulations with reactive astrocytes have been viewed as a new therapeutic approach that will enable the development of treatments for acute brain injuries and neurodegenerative diseases. Astrocytes can release several substances, which may exert neurotoxic or neuroprotective effects, but the nature of these substances is still largely unknown. In the present work, we tested the hypothesis that these effects may be attributed to oxylipins, which are synthesized from n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). We used astrocyte-enriched cultures and found that: (1) lipid fractions secreted by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)—stimulated rat primary astrocyte-enriched cultures—possessed neurotoxic activity in rat primary neuronal cultures, (2) both of the tested oxylipin synthesis inhibitors, ML355 and Zileuton, reduce the LPS-stimulated release of interleukin 6 (IL-6) by astrocyte cultures, but only ML355 can change lipid fractions from neurotoxic to non-toxic, and (3) oxylipin profiles, measured by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) from neurotoxic and non-toxic lipid fractions, reveal a group of n-3 docosahexaenoic acid derivatives, hydroxydocosahexaenoic acids (HdoHEs)-4-HdoHE, 8-HdoHE, and 17-HdoHE, which may reflect the neuroprotective features of lipid fractions. Regulating the composition of astrocyte oxylipin profiles may be suggested as an approach for regulation of neurotoxicity in inflammatory processes.

Hyperglycemia is associated with several complications in the brain, which are also characterized by inflammatory conditions. Astrocytes are responsible for glucose metabolism in the brain and are also important participants of inflammatory responses. Oxylipins are lipid mediators, derived from the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and are generally considered to be a link between metabolic and inflammatory processes. High glucose exposure causes astrocyte dysregulation, but its effects on the metabolism of oxylipins are relatively unknown and therefore, constituted the focus of our work. We used normal glucose (NG, 5.5 mM) vs. high glucose (HG, 25 mM) feeding media in primary rat astrocytes-enriched cultures and measured the extracellular release of oxylipins (UPLC-MS/MS) in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The sensitivity of HG and NG growing astrocytes in oxylipin synthesis for various serum concentrations was also tested. Our data reveal shifts towards pro-inflammatory states in HG non-stimulated cells: an increase in the amounts of free PUFAs, including arachidonic (AA), docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acids, and cyclooxygenase (COX) mediated metabolites. Astrocytes cultivated in HG showed a tolerance to the LPS, and an imbalance between inflammatory cytokine (IL-6) and oxylipins release. These results suggest a regulation of COX-mediated oxylipin synthesis in astrocytes as a potential new target in treating brain impairment associated with hyperglycemia.

The involvement of oxylipins, metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids, in cancer pathogenesis was known long ago, but only the development of the high-throughput methods get the opportunity to study oxylipins on a system level. The study aimed to elucidate alterations in oxylipin metabolism as characteristics of breast cancer patients. We compared the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) oxylipin profile signatures in the blood plasma of 152 healthy volunteers (HC) and 169 patients with different stages of breast cancer (BC). To integrate lipidomics, transcriptomics, and genomics data, we analyzed a transcriptome of 10 open database datasets obtained from tissues and blood cells of BC patients and SNP data for 33 genes related to oxylipin metabolism. We identified 18 oxylipins, metabolites of omega-3 or omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, that were differentially expressed between BCvsHC patients, including anandamide, prostaglandins and hydroxydocosahexaenoic acids. DEGs analysis of tissue and blood samples from BC patients revealed that 19 genes for oxylipin biosynthesis change their expression level, with CYP2C19, PTGS2, HPGD, and FAAH included in the list of DEGs in the analysis of transcriptomes and the list of SNPs associated with BC. Results allow us to suppose that oxylipin signatures reflect the organism’s level of response to the disease. Our data regarding changes in oxylipins at the system level show that oxylipin profiles can be used to evaluate the early stages of breast cancer.

Dry eye syndrome (DES) is characterized by decreased tear production and stability, leading to desiccating stress, inflammation and corneal damage. DES treatment may involve targeting the contributing inflammatory pathways mediated by polyunsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives, oxylipins. Here, using an animal model of general anesthesia-induced DES, we addressed these pathways by characterizing inflammatory changes in tear lipidome, in correlation with pathophysiological and biochemical signs of the disease. The decline in tear production was associated with the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the corneal stroma, which manifested one to three days after anesthesia, accompanied by changes in tear antioxidants and cytokines, resulting in persistent damage to the corneal epithelium. The inflammatory response manifested in the tear fluid as a short-term increase in linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid-derived oxylipins, followed by elevation in arachidonic acid and its derivatives, leukotriene B4 (5-lipoxigenase product), 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-lipoxigeanse product) and prostaglandins, D2, E2 and F2&alpha, (cyclooxygenase products) that was observed for up to 7 days. Given these data, DES was treated by a novel ophthalmic formulation containing a dimethyl sulfoxide-based solution of zileuton, an inhibitor of 5-lipoxigenase and arachidonic acid release. The therapy markedly improved the corneal state in DES by attenuating cytokine- and oxylipin-mediated inflammatory responses, without affecting tear production rates. Interestingly, the high efficacy of the proposed therapy resulted from the synergetic action of its components, namely, the general healing activity of dimethyl sulfoxide, suppressing prostaglandins and the more specific effect of zileuton, downregulating leukotriene B4 (inhibition of T-cell recruitment), as well as upregulating docosahexaenoic acid (activation of resolution pathways).

Wilson&rsquo, s disease (WD) is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder resulting from mutations in the copper-transporting, P-type ATPase gene ATP7B gene, but influences of epigenetics, environment, age, and sex-related factors on the WD phenotype complicate diagnosis and clinical manifestations. Oxylipins, derivatives of omega-3, and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are signaling mediators that are deeply involved in innate immunity responses, the regulation of inflammatory responses, including acute and chronic inflammation, and other disturbances related to any system diseases. Therefore, oxylipin profile tests are attractive for the diagnosis of WD. With UPLC-MS/MS lipidomics analysis, we detected 43 oxylipins in the plasma profiles of 39 patients with various clinical manifestations of WD compared with 16 healthy controls (HCs). Analyzing the similarity matrix of oxylipin profiles allowed us to cluster patients into three groups. Analysis of the data by VolcanoPlot and partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) showed that eight oxylipins and lipids stand for the variance between WD and HCs: eicosapentaenoic acid EPA, oleoylethanolamide OEA, octadecadienoic acids 9-HODE, 9-KODE, 12-hydroxyheptadecatrenoic acid 12-HHT, prostaglandins PGD2, PGE2, and 14,15-dihydroxyeicosatrienoic acids 14,15-DHET. The compounds indicate the involvement of oxidative stress damage, inflammatory processes, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathways in this disease. The data reveal novel possible therapeutic targets and intervention strategies for treating WD.

Ocular inflammation is a key pathogenic factor in most blindness-causing visual disorders. It can manifest in the aqueous humor (AH) and tear fluid (TF) as alterations in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and their metabolites, oxylipins, lipid mediators, which are biosynthesized via enzymatic pathways involving lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase or cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and specifically regulate inflammation and resolution pathways. This study aimed to establish the baseline patterns of PUFAs and oxylipins in AH and TF by their comprehensive lipidomic identification and profiling in humans in the absence of ocular inflammation and comparatively analyze these compounds in the eye liquids of rabbits, the species often employed in investigative ophthalmology. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used for qualitative and quantitative characterization of lipid compounds in the analyzed samples. A total of 28 lipid compounds were identified, including phospholipid derivatives and PUFAs, as well as 22 oxylipins. Whereas the PUFAs included arachidonic, docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids, the oxylipins were derived mainly from arachidonic, linoleic and α-linolenic acids. Remarkably, although the concentration of oxylipins in AH was lower compared to TF, these liquids showed pronounced similarity in their lipid profiles, which additionally exhibited noticeable interspecies concordance. The revealed correlations confirm the feasibility of rabbit models for investigating pathogenesis and trialing therapies of human eye disorders. The identified metabolite patterns suggest enzymatic mechanisms of oxylipin generation in AH and TF and might be used as a reference in ocular inflammation studies.

At present, in Russia there is a contradiction between the familiar, time-tested, and innovative technologies in the field of education. It is possible to overcome this conflict by combining full-time and distance learning in the context of a digital educational environment that requires certain applied skills from an educational institution employee. Special operational systems that integrate information from related sciences may be the basis of the digital educational environment in the context of the application of information management technologies. Such systems are required to facilitate the unification, accumulation and preservation of knowledge, as well as ensuring free access to intellectual resources. The authors of the article identified four basic functions of the application of information-type technologies during the training of future representatives of a particular profession: informational and educational, formative, estimative and corrective, research. It is noted that these functions do not act separately, but as elements of a single system, depending on conditions determined by the characteristics of the information educational environment. The analysis allows the authors to argue that at this stage of the educational process evolution, the main task is to create a methodology related to the use of information management technologies in the development of educational electronic materials and their implementation in the context of pedagogical activity.

The origin and development of e-learning methods in Russia and other countries is due to steady progress in the field of information and communication technologies and the general informatization of the educational process, the creation of a global environment for the mutual integration of cultures and disciplines, as well as the establishment of continuing open-ended education that underlies post-industrial (information) society. Under the influence of these processes, there is a need for new, more advanced educational practices, which is the reason for the transformation of both the essence of national education and its formal side. Nowadays, a person should possess not only a certain amount of useful information, but also the ability to learn: search and find the necessary information, use various sources to get out of difficult situations, continuously expand the range of one’s own competencies, and constantly develop, keeping up with what is happening around. In the framework of the modern educational paradigm, the student is considered as a subject of knowledge, and not an object of pedagogical influence. In the early to mid2010s, active contribution to this is made by e-learning (electronic learning, e-learning), which must be used in educational institutions of various types and at different levels of the educational vertical. It makes it possible to integrate into the global scientific community, to become subjects of the interaction of cultures, including the exchange of spiritual values. The introduction of e-learning is one of the key tasks in the context of the modernization of national education. The term «electronic learning» is transmitted into Russian in various ways. The most popular options are: “distance learning / education”, “mobile learning”, “virtual learning”. The European Commission interprets “e-learning” as “the use of new multimedia and Internet technologies to improve the quality of education by improving access to resources and services, as well as remote knowledge sharing and collaboration”. In this study, the term “e-learning” will correspond to the phrase “electronic learning”. This is a learning process based on interactive electronic means of storing and providing information: the Internet, corporate networks, and CD-ROMs.

A phenomenon of endotoxin tolerance where prior exposure of cells to minute amounts of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) causes them to become refractory to a subsequent high-amount endotoxin challenge is well described for innate immune cells such as monocytes/macrophages, but it is still obscure for brain cells. We exposed primary rat cortical astrocytes to a long-term low-grade concentration of LPS, followed by stimulation with a middle-grade concentration of LPS. Inflammatory markers, i.e., pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF&alpha, inducible enzymes COX-2 and iNOS, anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10) detected at the mRNA and protein levels reveal similarities between astrocytes and macrophages in the model, i.e., tolerance in pro-inflammatory markers and priming in IL-10. Long-term or short-term treatment with IL-10 does not change cell sensitivity for LPS, which makes doubtful its involvement in the mechanisms of cell tolerance development. Significant changes occur in the oxylipin profiles measured by UPLC-MS/MS analysis. The priming occurs in the following compounds: 11-HETE, PGD2, PGE2, cyclopentenone prostaglandins, and TXB2. Tolerance is observed for 12-HHT, PGF2&alpha, and 6-keto-PGF1&alpha, As far as we know, this is the first report on changes in oxylipin profiles in the endotoxin tolerance model. The data can greatly improve the understanding of oxylipins&rsquo, role in inflammatory and resolution processes in the brain and mechanisms of astrocyte involvement in neuroinflammation.

The research is relevant as educational computer games are included in students’ mathematical activity and form additional opportunities to improve the quality of teaching mathematics in a digital school, to support the formation of the demanded professional competence - computational thinking. To form the appropriate skills that determine the essence of special computational thinking, the authors propose to include game educational spaces based on digital gamification resources into students’ mathematical activities. The research aims to resolve the contradiction between requirements of the modern economy for specialists’ high level of computational thinking and an insufficiently developed methodological base for training graduates that meets these requirements. The purpose of this research is to study the features of using gamification technologies in teaching mathematics to form the skills and abilities that make up the essence of computational thinking. The article describes directions of educational and cognitive mathematical activity based on the principles of gamification. The authors clarify the concept of “computational thinking”, which includes a system of actions for activating patterns, connections between them from human memory, and compile an effective algorithm for solving them: to obtain relevant information on advanced technological developments; to state the problem and model; to use a software product with mathematical content.

An increased interest in neuroinflammation is conditioned by its involvement in various pathological processes in the brain. Astrocytes play an important role in neuroinflammation, participating in its regulation, throwing out a large number of signaling molecules. Steroid compounds, actively produced by astrocytes, are of interest with regards to the regulation of inflammatory processes in the central nervous system. In the present work the effect of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on astroglial cells (cultured primary rat astrocytes) in a model of inflammation was studied. The inflammatory response was stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Expression levels of pro-inflammatory factor TNFα, antinflammatory interleukin IL-10, and both pro- and antiinflammatory protein COX-2 were measured. The expression of IL-10, COX-2, and TNFα mRNA was determined by real-time PCR, COX-2 protein level by immunoblotting method, TNFα and IL-10 release by enzyme immunoassay. The effect of short-term (30 min) and long-term (24 h) exposure to DHEA was evaluated. It was shown that DHEA potentiates LPS-stimulated (1) increase in the IL-10 mRNA level; (2) IL-10 release; (3) does not affect TNFα level, and (4) exerts a weak pulsating bidirectional effect on COX-2. Using trilostane, an inhibitor of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, a key enzyme of DHEA metabolism, it was shown that DHEA metabolites make the main contribution to its effect. Thus, DHEA is of interest as a stimulant of anti-inflammatory processes in the brain.

Astrocytes play a vital role in regulating central nervous system inflammation, energy metabolism and brain homeostasis. Unlike macrophages and microglia, which are cells of myeloid ancestry, astrocytes are of ectodermal origin. However, regulatory specificities of signaling pathways connecting inflammatory and metabolic processes are still largely unknown. We analyzed firstly cellular responses to toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists and secondly, modulation of the mRNA of the three isoforms of the transcription factors PPARs (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) in primary rat astrocytes exposed to normal glucose (5.5 mM) and high glucose (25 mM). Cell culturing of rat brain astrocytes for 2 days in high glucose did not alter cellular morphology, but i) enhanced the release of TNFα that was induced by TLR4 agonist LPS or TLR3 agonist PIC and the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), ii) changed the signaling pathways of TLR4/MAPK (increase in p38 MAPK, and decrease in JNK activities at early stages of TLR activation) and iii) modulated mRNA expression of PPARs. High glucose cultivation reduced PPARα and PPARβ mRNA levels, without altering PPARγ mRNA level and changed the sensitivity of expressions to agonists of TLR1/2 (PGN), TLR4 (LPS), TLR3 (PIC), and TLR5 (FGN). Differences between low and high glucose-adapted cells were obtained for agonists of TLR1/2 (PPARα, PPARβ), TLR4 (PPAR β), TLR3 (PPARα). In the TLR4/p38/PPARβ signaling pathway, there was a stimulatory connection in normal glucose but an inhibitory connection in high glucose. TLR4/JNK/activated PPARβ, TLR4/JNK/inhibited PPARγ both in cells adapted to normal or high glucose, but PPARα expression was not affected. As PPARs in astrocytes are involved in inflammatory processes in the form of the recently published PPAR triad, the changes in expression revealed here are most likely resulting in implications of high glucose in inflammatory processes. Our data underline the complexity of multiple regulatory interactions between inflammatory responses and energy metabolism in astrocytes.

The ultraviolet (UV) B-induced damage of the eye surface of experimental animals (rabbits) includes loss of corneal epithelium, apoptosis of keratocytes and stromal edema. These changes are accompanied by clinically and histologically manifested corneal inflammation, neutrophil infiltration, and exudation of the anterior chamber of the eye. According to mass spectrometric analysis, UV-induced corneal damage is associated with pronounced changes in the lipid composition of tears, including a decrease in the amount of arachidonic acid and prostaglandin E2 and an increase in the concentrations of prostaglandin D2 and its derivative 15d-PGJ2. In addition, it is accompanied by an alteration in the levels of hydroxyeicosate tetraenic acid derivatives, namely upregulation of 12-HETE and downregulation of 5-HETE. The revealed changes indicate the activation of metabolic pathways involving 5-lipoxygenase, 12-lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase 1 and 2, and prostaglandin-D-synthase. These findings contribute to understanding mechanisms of UV-induced keratitis and point on feasibility of selective anti-inflammatory therapy for improving corneal regeneration after iatrogenic UV damage.Povrezhdeniia poverkhnosti glaza éksperimental'nykh zhivotnykh (krolikov), indutsirovannye ul'trafioletovym (UF) izlucheniem (ul'trafiolet V), vkliuchaiut polnuiu deépitelizatsiiu rogovitsy, apoptoz keratotsitov i otek stromy étoĭ tkani. Ukazannye izmeneniia soprovozhdaiutsia razvitiem klinicheski i gistologicheski detektiruemoĭ vospalitel'noĭ reaktsii v rogovitse, a takzhe neĭtrofil'noĭ infil'tratsieĭ i ékssudatsieĭ peredneĭ kamery glaza. Po dannym mass-spektrometricheskogo analiza, UF-indutsirovannye povrezhdeniia rogovitsy assotsiirovany s vyrazhennymi izmeneniiami lipidnogo sostava slezy, vkliuchaiushchimi snizhenie kolichestva arakhidonovoĭ kisloty i prostaglandina E2, uvelichenie kontsentratsiĭ prostaglandina D2 i ego proizvodnogo 15d-PGJ2, a takzhe izmenenie urovneĭ gidroksiéĭkozatetraenovykh kislot 12-HETE (snizhenie) i 5-HETE (povyshenie). Éto ukazyvaet na aktivatsiiu metabolicheskikh puteĭ s uchastiem 5-lipoksigenazy, 12-lipoksigenazy, tsiklooksigenaz 1 i 2, i prostaglandin-D-sintazy. Rezul'taty raboty rasshiriaiut ponimanie mekhanizmov razvitiia UF-indutsirovannogo keratita, a takzhe svidetel'stvuiut o perspektivnosti ispol'zovaniia selektivnoĭ protivovospalitel'noĭ terapii dlia uskoreniia regeneratsii rogovitsy posle iatrogennykh povrezhdeniĭ, vyzvannykh UF-izlucheniem.

The synthesis of signal lipids, including eicosanoids, is not fully understood, although it is key to the modulation of various inflammatory states. Recently, isotopologues of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) deuterated at bis-allylic positions (D-PUFAs) have been proposed as inhibitors of non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation (LPO) in various disease models. Arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4 n-6) is the main precursor to several classes of eicosanoids, which are produced by cyclooxygenases (COX) and lipoxygenases (LOX). In this study we analyzed the relative activity of human recombinant enzymes COX-2, 5-LOX, and 15-LOX-2 using a library of arachidonic acids variably deuterated at the bis-allylic (C7, C10, and C13) positions. Kinetic parameters (KM, Vmax) and isotope effects calculated from kH/kD for seven deuterated arachidonic acid derivatives were obtained. Spectroscopic methods have shown that deuteration at the 13th position dramatically affects the kinetic parameters of COX-2 and 15-LOX-2. The activity of 5-LOX was evaluated by measuring hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (8-HETE and 5-HETE) using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Deuteration at the seventh and 10th positions affects the performance of the 5-LOX enzyme. A flowchart is proposed suggesting how to modulate the synthesis of selected eicosanoids using the library of deuterated isotopologues to potentially fine-tune various inflammation stages.

Nanoparticles of the steroidal hormone dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) were prepared by cryosynthesis technology, which allowed starting DHEA particles of size (100 ± 50) μm to be converted to nanoparticles of size (100 ± 20) nm. The particle sizes were determined by optical, electron transmission, and scanning atomic-force microscopy. HPLC with mass-spectrometric detection of starting and modified DHEA samples showed that the hormone molecular structure did not change during cryosynthesis of the nanoparticles. A comparison of the cytotoxicities of the samples on C6 glial cell culture showed that modified DHEA was less toxic. The results indicated that cryosynthesis technology could be used effectively to prepare nanoparticles of steroidal hormones.